Geography of Qatar: Difference between revisions
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The coastline, which is roughly 700km²,<ref name="abulali"/> is [[Emergent coastline|emergent]] and gently slopes toward the sea. Many flat, low-lying offshore islands are located near the coast and are accompanied by [[coral reefs]].<ref name="nayeem1"/> As a result of salt water coming into contact with the low-lying land, many [[Salt pan (geology)|salt flats]] (known locally as [[sabkha]]s) have formed near the coast.<ref name="nayeem1"/> The coastline from [[Mesaieed]] to [[Khawr al Udayd]] is particularly rich in sabkhas. Inland sabkhas can be found in western in Qatar near Dukhan and [[Sawda Natheel]].<ref name="abulali"/> |
The coastline, which is roughly 700km²,<ref name="abulali"/> is [[Emergent coastline|emergent]] and gently slopes toward the sea. Many flat, low-lying offshore islands are located near the coast and are accompanied by [[coral reefs]].<ref name="nayeem1"/> As a result of salt water coming into contact with the low-lying land, many [[Salt pan (geology)|salt flats]] (known locally as [[sabkha]]s) have formed near the coast.<ref name="nayeem1"/> The coastline from [[Mesaieed]] to [[Khawr al Udayd]] is particularly rich in sabkhas. Inland sabkhas can be found in western in Qatar near Dukhan and [[Sawda Natheel]].<ref name="abulali"/> |
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A [[sabkha]] (salt-flat) ecosystem known as the [[Dukhan Sabkha]] is found in the northern section of the Dukhan region in western Qatar. This sabkha, considered the largest inland sabkha in the [[Persian Gulf]], runs for approximately 20 km, occupies an area of 73 km², has a width of 2 to 4 km and a depth of between 6 and 7 meters.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsta.2010.0101|title=Raman spectroscopy of the Dukhan sabkha: identification of geological and biogeological molecules in an extreme environment|author1=Howell G. M. Edwards |author2=Fadhil Sadooni |author3=Petr Vítek |author4=Jan Jehlička |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=368|publisher=Royal Society Publishing|date=13 July 2010|issue=1922|pages=3099–3107|doi=10.1098/rsta.2010.0101|pmid=20529947|bibcode=2010RSPTA.368.3099E |s2cid=7262453|access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref> It also accommodates the lowest point of Qatar, at six meters below sea level.<ref name="abulali">{{cite journal|url=https://eurekamag.com/pdf/012/012125301.pdf|title=Geologic Evolution of the Dukhan salt flats in Western Qatar Peninsula, Arabian Gulf|last1=Sadiq|first1=Abdulali M.|journal=Qatar University Science Journal|issue=23|pages=41–58|year=2003|access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref> Studies suggest that the sabkha is fed by seawater from the [[Bay of Zekreet]], north by approximately 3 km.<ref name="ecosystems176">{{cite book|author= M. Ajmal Khan|author2= Benno Böer|author3= German S. Kust|author4= Hans-Jörg Barth|title=Sabkha Ecosystems: Volume II: West and Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IYVGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179|publisher=Springer|year=2006|page=176|isbn=978-1402050718}}</ref> |
A [[sabkha]] (salt-flat) ecosystem known as the [[Dukhan Sabkha]] is found in the northern section of the Dukhan region in western Qatar. This sabkha, considered the largest inland sabkha in the [[Persian Gulf]], runs for approximately 20 km, occupies an area of 73 km², has a width of 2 to 4 km and a depth of between 6 and 7 meters.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsta.2010.0101|title=Raman spectroscopy of the Dukhan sabkha: identification of geological and biogeological molecules in an extreme environment|author1=Howell G. M. Edwards |author2=Fadhil Sadooni |author3=Petr Vítek |author4=Jan Jehlička |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=368|publisher=Royal Society Publishing|date=13 July 2010|issue=1922|pages=3099–3107|doi=10.1098/rsta.2010.0101|pmid=20529947|bibcode=2010RSPTA.368.3099E |s2cid=7262453|access-date=23 February 2019|doi-access=free}}</ref> It also accommodates the lowest point of Qatar, at six meters below sea level.<ref name="abulali">{{cite journal|url=https://eurekamag.com/pdf/012/012125301.pdf|title=Geologic Evolution of the Dukhan salt flats in Western Qatar Peninsula, Arabian Gulf|last1=Sadiq|first1=Abdulali M.|journal=Qatar University Science Journal|issue=23|pages=41–58|year=2003|access-date=23 February 2019}}</ref> Studies suggest that the sabkha is fed by seawater from the [[Bay of Zekreet]], north by approximately 3 km.<ref name="ecosystems176">{{cite book|author= M. Ajmal Khan|author2= Benno Böer|author3= German S. Kust|author4= Hans-Jörg Barth|title=Sabkha Ecosystems: Volume II: West and Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IYVGAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA179|publisher=Springer|year=2006|page=176|isbn=978-1402050718}}</ref> |
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==Climate== |
==Climate== |
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Revision as of 00:03, 15 August 2023
 | |
| Continent | Asia |
|---|---|
| Region | Middle East |
| Coordinates | 25°18′N 51°09′E / 25.30°N 51.15°E |
| Area | Ranked 164th |
| • Total | 11,571 km2 (4,468 sq mi) |
| • Land | 100% |
| • Water | 0% |
| Coastline | 563 km (350 mi) |
| Borders | Saudi Arabia: 60 km (37 mi) |
| Highest point | Qurayn Abu al Bawl, 103 m (338 ft) |
| Lowest point | Persian Gulf, 0 m (0 ft) |
| Climate | arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers |
| Terrain | mostly flat and barren desert covered with loose sand and gravel |
| Natural resources | petroleum, natural gas, fish |
| Natural hazards | haze, dust storms, sandstorms common |
| Environmental issues | limited natural freshwater resources are increasing dependence on large-scale desalination facilities |
| Exclusive economic zone | 31,590 km2 (12,197 sq mi) |
Qatar is a peninsula in the east of Arabia, bordering the Persian Gulf and Saudi Arabia, in a strategic location near major petroleum deposits. The State of Qatar occupies 11,571 km2 (4,468 sq mi) on a peninsula that extends approximately to 160 km (99 mi) north into the Persian Gulf from the Arabian Peninsula.[1]
Varying in width between 55 and 90 km (34 and 56 mi), the land is mainly flat (the highest point is 103 m (338 ft)) and rocky.[1] Notable features include coastal salt pans, elevated limestone formations (the Dukhan anticline) along the west coast under which lies the Dukhan oil field, and massive sand dunes surrounding Khawr al Udayd, an inlet of the Persian Gulf in the southeast known to local English speakers as the Inland Sea.[1]
General topography
The peninsula of Qatar is low-lying. Its shape is the surface expression of the Qatar Arch, one of the largest structural characteristics of the Arabian Plate.[2] It is enveloped by loose sand and pebbles broken off the outcropping limestone. Smooth plains are found in the east, where the surface is covered by fine-grained dust. The south and south-west portion of the peninsula mainly comprises sand dunes and salt flats.[3] Hill ranges (called 'jebels') can be found in western Qatar near the Dukhan area and at Jebel Fuwayrit on the northeast coast.[4] Jebel Nakhsh is a notable mountain ridge south of Dukhan and contains substantial deposits of gypsum.[5]
The coastline, which is roughly 700km²,[6] is emergent and gently slopes toward the sea. Many flat, low-lying offshore islands are located near the coast and are accompanied by coral reefs.[3] As a result of salt water coming into contact with the low-lying land, many salt flats (known locally as sabkhas) have formed near the coast.[3] The coastline from Mesaieed to Khawr al Udayd is particularly rich in sabkhas. Inland sabkhas can be found in western in Qatar near Dukhan and Sawda Natheel.[6]
A sabkha (salt-flat) ecosystem known as the Dukhan Sabkha is found in the northern section of the Dukhan region in western Qatar. This sabkha, considered the largest inland sabkha in the Persian Gulf, runs for approximately 20 km, occupies an area of 73 km², has a width of 2 to 4 km and a depth of between 6 and 7 meters.[7] It also accommodates the lowest point of Qatar, at six meters below sea level.[6] Studies suggest that the sabkha is fed by seawater from the Bay of Zekreet, north by approximately 3 km.[8]
Climate
The long summer (May through September) is characterized by intense heat and very little humidity,the weather being extremely dry, with temperatures exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[1] Temperatures are moderate from November to March,[1] ranging from as high as 39 °C (102 °F) in April to as low as 7 °C (45 °F) in January.[9] Rainfall averages 100 mm (3.9 in) per year, confined to the winter months, and falling in brief storms which are occasionally heavy enough to flood the small ravines and the usually dry wadis.[1]
Sudden, violent dust storms occasionally descend on the peninsula, blotting out the sun, causing wind damage, and temporarily disrupting transport and other services.[1]
The scarcity of rainfall and the limited underground water, most of which has such a high mineral content that it is unsuitable for drinking or irrigation, severely restricted the population and the extent of agricultural and industrial development the country could support until desalination projects began.[1] Although water continues to be provided from underground sources, most is obtained by desalination of seawater.[1]
| Climate data for Doha (1962–2013, extremes 1962–2013) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 32.4 (90.3) |
36.5 (97.7) |
41.5 (106.7) |
46.0 (114.8) |
47.7 (117.9) |
49.1 (120.4) |
50.4 (122.7) |
48.6 (119.5) |
46.2 (115.2) |
43.4 (110.1) |
38.0 (100.4) |
32.7 (90.9) |
50.4 (122.7) |
| Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 22.0 (71.6) |
23.4 (74.1) |
27.3 (81.1) |
32.5 (90.5) |
38.8 (101.8) |
41.6 (106.9) |
41.9 (107.4) |
40.9 (105.6) |
38.9 (102.0) |
35.4 (95.7) |
29.6 (85.3) |
24.4 (75.9) |
33.1 (91.5) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 17.8 (64.0) |
18.9 (66.0) |
22.3 (72.1) |
27.1 (80.8) |
32.5 (90.5) |
35.1 (95.2) |
36.1 (97.0) |
35.5 (95.9) |
33.3 (91.9) |
30.0 (86.0) |
25.0 (77.0) |
20.0 (68.0) |
27.8 (82.0) |
| Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 13.5 (56.3) |
14.4 (57.9) |
17.3 (63.1) |
21.4 (70.5) |
26.1 (79.0) |
28.5 (83.3) |
30.2 (86.4) |
30.0 (86.0) |
27.7 (81.9) |
24.6 (76.3) |
20.4 (68.7) |
15.6 (60.1) |
22.5 (72.5) |
| Record low °C (°F) | 3.8 (38.8) |
5.0 (41.0) |
8.2 (46.8) |
10.5 (50.9) |
15.2 (59.4) |
21.0 (69.8) |
23.5 (74.3) |
22.4 (72.3) |
20.3 (68.5) |
16.6 (61.9) |
11.8 (53.2) |
6.4 (43.5) |
3.8 (38.8) |
| Average precipitation mm (inches) | 13.2 (0.52) |
17.1 (0.67) |
16.1 (0.63) |
8.7 (0.34) |
3.6 (0.14) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
1.1 (0.04) |
3.3 (0.13) |
12.1 (0.48) |
75.2 (2.95) |
| Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 1.7 | 2.1 | 1.8 | 1.4 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 1.3 | 8.8 |
| Average relative humidity (%) | 74 | 70 | 63 | 53 | 44 | 41 | 50 | 58 | 62 | 63 | 66 | 74 | 60 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 244.9 | 224.0 | 241.8 | 273.0 | 325.5 | 342.0 | 325.5 | 328.6 | 306.0 | 303.8 | 276.0 | 241.8 | 3,432.9 |
| Mean daily sunshine hours | 7.9 | 8.0 | 7.8 | 9.1 | 10.5 | 11.4 | 10.5 | 10.6 | 10.2 | 9.8 | 9.2 | 7.8 | 9.4 |
| Source 1: NOAA[10] | |||||||||||||
| Source 2: Qatar Meteorological Department (Climate Normals 1962–2013)[11][12] | |||||||||||||
| Sea Climate Data For Doha | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average sea temperature °C (°F) | 21.0 (69.8) |
19.4 (66.9) |
20.9 (69.6) |
23.3 (73.9) |
27.8 (82) |
30.5 (86.9) |
32.4 (90.3) |
33.6 (92.5) |
32.8 (91) |
30.8 (87.4) |
27.5 (81.5) |
23.5 (74.3) |
26.9 (80.5) |
| Source:[13] | |||||||||||||
Wildlife
Flora
Although most of the country consists of sand deserts, a small part of the country houses different vegetation zones, where trees, reeds and shrubs like tamarind, phragmites, and mace can grow. These regions are mostly to the east, near the coast. The inherent limiting factor for vegetation growth is water availability. Certain geographical features partially alleviate this water scarcity, such as rawdas, which are large depressions found on the soil surface and which help recharge the aquifers.[14] As these sites constitute the most easily obtainable sources of shallow groundwater, they are also among the areas most abundant in wild vegetation.[15]
In the south, where groundwater is exceedingly scarce, vegetation can found growing in wadis (dry river valleys) fed by run-off from nearby hills and in rawdas.[16]
Fauna
There are 21 species of mammals that have been recorded in Qatar.[17] Larger terrestrial mammals such as the Arabian oryx and Arabian gazelle are protected animals and are held in nature reserves.[18] The Arabian gazelle is the only native gazelle species to Qatar and is locally referred to as 'rheem'.[19]
Qatar's territorial waters in the Persian Gulf are rich in marine life. Sea turtles nest en masse on the coastline from Fuwayrit to Ras Laffan. The Ministry of Environment (MME) carries out routine patrols of nesting areas to ensure their conservation.[20] Dugongs are known to congregate off the country's coasts. In the course of a study being carried out in 1986 and 1999 on the Persian Gulf, the largest-ever group sightings were made of more than 600 individuals to the west of Qatar.[21]
Area and land boundaries
Qatar has one land border. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the south. The boundary with Saudi Arabia was settled in 1965 but never demarcated.[1] Qatar's northwest coast is fewer than 30 km (19 mi) from the main islands of Bahrain,[1] while the small Hawar Islands of Bahrain are only 1.4 km (0.8 mi) off that coast.[citation needed] The peninsula's northernmost point is Ras Rakan.[22]
Maritime claims
contiguous zone:
24 nmi (44.4 km; 27.6 mi)
exclusive economic zone:
31,590 km2 (12,197 sq mi) as determined by bilateral agreements, or the median line
territorial sea:
12 nmi (22.2 km; 13.8 mi)
Islands
Of the islands belonging to Qatar, Halul is the most important.[1] Lying about 90 km (56 mi) east of Doha, it serves as a storage area and loading terminal for oil from the surrounding offshore fields.[1] Hawar and the adjacent islands immediately off the west coast are the subject of a territorial dispute between Qatar and Bahrain.[1]
Resources and land use
Based on estimates in 2011 estimates, 5.6% of the land is agricultural. Arable land comprises 1.1%, permanent crops 0.2% and permanent pasture 4.6%. 94.4% of the land was used for other uses.[23] In 2003, 129.4 km2 (50.0 sq mi) of land was irrigated.[23]
Geology and mineral deposits
| Era[24][25] | Period | Formation | Member | Mineral deposits and resources |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paleozoic | Cambrian | Hormuz Formation | Dolomite, sandstone | Hematite, carbonates, asbestos |
| Permian Carboniferous |
Khuff Formation | Petroleum | ||
| Mesozoic | Jurassic | Uwainat Limestone Formation, Arab Formation | Dolomite, limestone, evaporite, shale | Petroleum |
| Cretaceous | Shuaiba Formation | Marlstone, limestone, shale | Petroleum | |
| Cenozoic | Paleocene | Umm Er Radhuma Formation | ||
| Lower Eocene | Rus Formation | Chalk | Celestine, gypsum | |
| Lower Dammam Formation | Dukhan limestone, Midra shale, Rudjm Aid limestone | Palygorskite, pyrite | ||
| Middle Eocene | Upper Dammam Formation | Umm Bab chalk, Simaisma dolomites | Dolomite, limestone | |
| Miocene | Upper and Lower Dam Formation | Clay, limestone, gypsum | Clay, limestone, celestine | |
| Pliocene | Hofuf Formation | Sandy clay, sandstone | Sand, gravel | |
| Pleistocene | Miliolite limestone | Limestone | ||
Most of Qatar's surface lies on Cenozoic strata. These strata have an abundance of mineral resources, most of which have not yet been exploited, such as limestone and clay.[26] The Upper Dammam Formation in the Middle Eocene period is the most predominant surface layer. It is constituted by limestone and Dolomite.[27] The northern zone of Qatar, which comprises the most significant source of fresh groundwater in the peninsula, primarily draws its water from the Umm Err Radhuma Formation and Rus Formation dating to the Paleocene and Lower Eocene periods, respectively.[28] The Mesozoic strata are the most important layers as they contain petroleum. The first substantial deposit of crude oil was discovered in 1940 in the Jurassic period Arab Formation.[29]
Political and human geography
The capital, Doha, is located on the central east coast on a sweeping (if shallow) harbor.[1] Other ports include Umm Said, Al Khawr, and Al Wakrah. Only Doha and Umm Said are capable of handling commercial shipping, although a large port and a terminal for loading natural gas are planned at Ras Laffan Industrial City, north of Al Khawr.[1] Coral reefs and shallow coastal waters make navigation difficult in areas where channels have not been dredged.[1]
Doha is the capital of the country and the major administrative, commercial, and population center.[1] In 1993 it was linked to other towns and development sites by a system of about 1,000 km (620 mi) of paved roads.[1] Doha's international airport has an approximately 4,500 m (14,800 ft) main runway, capable of receiving all kinds of aircraft.[1]
Historically, settlement distribution in Qatar has mainly been dictated by the presence of obtainable fresh groundwater.[14] Rawdas, which are depressions with shallow groundwater, have typically been the most popular sites of settlement throughout the peninsula.[15] In Qatar's south, where groundwater is exceedingly difficult to obtain, settlement formation was mostly limited to wadis (dry river valleys) fed by run-off from nearby hills and rawdas.[14]
Environmental agreements
Qatar is currently party to the following international environmental agreements:[23]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Toth, Anthony (1994). "Qatar: Geography". In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.). Persian Gulf states: country studies (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 162–163. ISBN 0-8444-0793-3. OCLC 29548413.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ "What's up with Qatar? How eustasy and neotectonics influenced the late Pleistocene and Holocene sea-level history of Qatar". Qatar Foundation Annual Research Forum Proceedings (2012). ExxonMobil Research Qatar: EEP4. 2012. doi:10.5339/qfarf.2012.EEP4. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|authors=ignored (help) - ^ a b c Abdul Nayeem, Muhammad (1998). Qatar Prehistory and Protohistory from the Most Ancient Times (Ca. 1,000,000 to End of B.C. Era). Hyderabad Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 9788185492049.
- ^ "About Qatar". Ministry of Municipality and Environment. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
- ^ Jacques Leblanc (December 2015). "A Historical Account of the Stratigraphy of Qatar, Middle-East (1816 to 2015)": 73. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b c Sadiq, Abdulali M. (2003). "Geologic Evolution of the Dukhan salt flats in Western Qatar Peninsula, Arabian Gulf" (PDF). Qatar University Science Journal (23): 41–58. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
- ^ Howell G. M. Edwards; Fadhil Sadooni; Petr Vítek; Jan Jehlička (13 July 2010). "Raman spectroscopy of the Dukhan sabkha: identification of geological and biogeological molecules in an extreme environment". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 368 (1922). Royal Society Publishing: 3099–3107. Bibcode:2010RSPTA.368.3099E. doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0101. PMID 20529947. S2CID 7262453. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
- ^ M. Ajmal Khan; Benno Böer; German S. Kust; Hans-Jörg Barth (2006). Sabkha Ecosystems: Volume II: West and Central Asia. Springer. p. 176. ISBN 978-1402050718.
- ^ Casey & Vine (1991), p. 69
- ^ "Doha International Airport Climate Normals 1962-1992". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 29, 2016.
- ^ "Climate Information For Doha". Qatar Meteorological Department. Archived from the original on November 27, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
- ^ "41170: Doha International Airport (Qatar)". ogimet.com. OGIMET. 19 March 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
- ^ "Doha Sea Temperature". seatemperature.org. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
- ^ a b c Macumber, Phillip G. (2015). "Water Heritage in Qatar". Cultural Heritages of Water: Thematic Study on The Cultural Heritages of Water in the Middle East and Maghreb. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. academia.edu. UNESCO. p. 223. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
- ^ a b Macumber, Phillip G. (2015). "Water Heritage in Qatar". Cultural Heritages of Water: Thematic Study on The Cultural Heritages of Water in the Middle East and Maghreb. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. academia.edu. UNESCO. p. 226. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
- ^ Macumber, Phillip G. (2015). "Water Heritage in Qatar". Cultural Heritages of Water: Thematic Study on The Cultural Heritages of Water in the Middle East and Maghreb. UNESCO World Heritage Convention. academia.edu. UNESCO. p. 227. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
- ^ "Mammals database". Qatar e-nature. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
- ^ Casey, Paula; Vine, Peter (1992). The heritage of Qatar. Immel Publishing. pp. 103. ISBN 9780907151500.
- ^ "Arabian Goitered Gazelle (Reem)". Al Waabra Wildlife Preservation. Retrieved 21 February 2019.
- ^ Rees, Alan F.; Zogaris, Stamatis; Papathanasopoulou, Nancy; Vidalis, Aris; Alhafez, Ali (April 2013). "Qatar Turtle Management Project: Inception report". researchgate.net. Ministry of Environment (Qatar). Retrieved 21 February 2019.
- ^ Paul Sillitoe (1 August 2014). Sustainable Development: An Appraisal from the Gulf Region. Berghahn Books. p. 280. ISBN 9781782383727.
- ^ Bird, Eric (2010). Encyclopedia of the World's Coastal Landforms. Springer. p. 1038. ISBN 978-1402086380.
- ^ a b c "Geography". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 17 July 2015. This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
- ^ Casey & Vine (1991), p. 73
- ^ Al-Kubaisi, Mohammed Ali M. (1984). Industrial development in Qatar: a geographical assessment (PDF). Durham E-Theses, Durham University. p. 12.
- ^ Al-Kubaisi, Mohammed Ali M. (1984). Industrial development in Qatar: a geographical assessment (PDF). Durham E-Theses, Durham University. pp. 10–11.
- ^ Al-Saad, Hamad (2015). "Lithostratigraphy of the Middle Eocene Dammam Formation in Qatar, Arabian Gulf: effects of sea-level fluctuations along a tidal environment". Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. 25 (5): Abstract. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2004.07.009. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
- ^ "Umm er Radhuma-Dammam Aquifer System (Centre)". Inventory of Shared Water Resources in Western Asia. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
- ^ Al-Kubaisi, Mohammed Ali M. (1984). Industrial development in Qatar: a geographical assessment (PDF). Durham E-Theses, Durham University. p. 11.
Bibliography
- Casey, Paula; Vine, Peter (1991). The heritage of Qatar (print ed.). Immel Publishing. ISBN 978-0907151500.
External links
- "East of Qatar". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.
