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==Biography==
==Biography==
Li Shangyin was born in 812 or 813 CE, but the exact date is uncertain.<ref>A. C. Graham 1977, 141</ref> His career was rough, and he never obtained a high-ranking position, either because of factional disputes or his association with [[Liu Fen]] ({{lang|zh-hant|劉蕡}}), a prominent opponent of the [[Eunuch (court official)|eunuch]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Li |title=The art of allusion in Li Shangyin |date=1997 |hdl=1807/10916 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Li Shangyin was born in 812 or 813 CE. The exact date is uncertain.<ref>A. C. Graham 1977, 141</ref> His career was rough, and he never obtained a high-ranking position, because of either factional disputes or his association with [[Liu Fen]] ({{lang|zh-hant|劉蕡}}), a prominent opponent of the [[Eunuch (court official)|eunuch]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Li |title=The art of allusion in Li Shangyin |date=1997 |hdl=1807/10916 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>


==Historical background==
==Historical background==
Li Shangyin lived at a time when the [[Tang dynasty]] was rapidly declining, after some two hundred years of glorious reign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Li Shangyin {{!}} Tang Dynasty, Poetry, Lyrical {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Li-Shangyin |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
Li lived at a time when the [[Tang dynasty]] was rapidly declining, after 200 years of glorious reign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Li Shangyin {{!}} Tang Dynasty, Poetry, Lyrical {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Li-Shangyin |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>


Culturally, politically, and economically, the Tang was one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. The cosmopolitan capital of [[Chang'an]] was filled with traders from the Middle East and other parts of Asia where many Asian vassal states sent envoys to pay tribute. The empire covered a vast territory, the largest yet in the history of China. Under the reign of Emperors [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang|Gaozuyi]] through [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Taizong]], [[Wu Zetian|Empress Wu]], and [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]], the Tang empire steadily grew to the height of its prosperity.{{fact|date=October 2023}}
Culturally, politically, and economically, the Tang was one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. The cosmopolitan capital of [[Chang'an]] was filled with traders from the Middle East and other parts of Asia where many Asian vassal states sent envoys to pay tribute. The empire covered a vast territory, the largest yet in Chinese history. Under the reign of Emperors [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang|Gaozuyi]] through [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Taizong]], [[Wu Zetian|Empress Wu]], and [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]], the Tang empire steadily grew to the height of its prosperity.{{fact|date=October 2023}}


However, after the [[An Lushan Rebellion]], the political and economic structure of the country began to disintegrate. The rebel generals fighting against the Tang court during and after the rebellion were allowed to surrender and given military governor posts, even after the leaders of the rebellion were vanquished. Peace and stability over the entire area of [[Hebei]] was heavily bought by a compromise settlement. These provincial governors paid only lip service to the central government. The court, now weak and impotent, tolerated their growing independence, wary also of the aggression of the [[Tibetans]] toward the north-west who posed a constant threat to the capital.{{fact|date=October 2023}}
But after the [[An Lushan Rebellion]], the country's political and economic structure began to disintegrate. The rebel generals fighting against the Tang court during and after the rebellion were allowed to surrender and given military governor posts, even after the rebellion's leaders were vanquished. Peace and stability over the entire area of [[Hebei]] was heavily bought by a compromise settlement. These provincial governors paid only lip service to the central government. The court, now weak and impotent, tolerated their growing independence, wary also of the aggression of the [[Tibetans]] toward the northwest who posed a constant threat to the capital.{{fact|date=October 2023}}


During the subsequent years, military governors repeatedly challenged imperial authority with attempts to claim hereditary succession, resulting in revolts and bloodshed. Apart from this loss of control over the provincial military leaders and other problems at the frontiers, the Tang court was internally plagued by the increasingly powerful eunuchs and the fierce [[Niu–Li factional strife]].{{fact|date=October 2023}}
During the subsequent years, military governors repeatedly challenged imperial authority with attempts to claim hereditary succession, resulting in revolts and bloodshed. Apart from this loss of control over the provincial military leaders and other problems at the frontiers, the Tang court was internally plagued by the increasingly powerful eunuchs and the fierce [[Niu–Li factional strife]].{{fact|date=October 2023}}


=== Rise of the eunuchs ===
=== Rise of the eunuchs ===
The eunuchs first gained political influence as a group when [[Gao Lishi]] helped [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]] in his rise in power. Later, [[Li Fuguo]] also helped to put [[Emperor Suzong of Tang|Emperor Suzong]] on the throne. By gaining royal patronage, eunuchs gradually controlled personal access to the emperors and participated in the business of the central government. They also involved themselves with provincial appointments, at times, even intervening with armed forces in disputes over imperial successions. By the time of Li Shangyin, the emperors had allowed the eunuchs to become fully entrenched both militarily and politically. After Xianzong, all Tang emperors (except Jingzong) were put on the throne by the eunuchs.{{fact|date=October 2023}}
The eunuchs first gained political influence as a group when [[Gao Lishi]] helped [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]] rise to power. Later, [[Li Fuguo]] also helped put [[Emperor Suzong of Tang|Emperor Suzong]] on the throne. By gaining royal patronage, eunuchs gradually controlled personal access to the emperors and participated in the business of the central government. They also involved themselves with provincial appointments, at times even intervening with armed forces in disputes over imperial successions. By the time of Li Shangyin, the emperors had allowed the eunuchs to become fully entrenched both militarily and politically. After Xuanzong, all Tang emperors (except Jingzong) were put on the throne by the eunuchs.{{fact|date=October 2023}}


=== Sweet Dew Incident ===
=== Sweet Dew Incident ===
Line 52: Line 52:


=== Niu-Li factional strife ===
=== Niu-Li factional strife ===
The [[Niu–Li factional strife|Niu-Li factional strife]] was another destructive internal force haunting the Tang court. The Niu and Li factions were not organized political parties, but two groups of rival politicians, hostile toward each other as a result of some personal animosity. The head of the Niu faction was represented by [[Niu Sengru]] and [[Li Zongmin]] and the Li faction by [[Li Deyu]]. In the 830s the two contending factions created much turmoil in court through the reigns of Emperors [[Emperor Muzong of Tang|Muzong]], [[Emperor Jingzong of Tang|Jingzong]], [[Emperor Wenzong of Tang|Wenzong]], [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang|Wuzong]], and [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Xuanzong]], a period coinciding almost exactly with Li Shangyin's life. According to [[Chen Yinke]], the struggle was also due to a difference in social background between the two groups, one representing the traditional ruling class of North China, and the other, the newly risen class of scholar-officials who reached their positions through the civil service examinations. In any case, many intellectuals and high officials were involved in this struggle. Whenever members of one faction were in power, people associated with the other faction would be demoted, or out of favor. The factional strife kept court officials from uniting against the increasing power of the eunuchs.{{fact|date=October 2023}}
The [[Niu–Li factional strife|Niu-Li factional strife]] was another destructive internal force haunting the Tang court. The Niu and Li factions were not organized political parties, but two groups of rival politicians, hostile toward each other as a result of personal animosity. The Niu faction was represented by [[Niu Sengru]] and [[Li Zongmin]] and the Li faction by [[Li Deyu]]. In the 830s the two contending factions created much turmoil in court through the reigns of Emperors [[Emperor Muzong of Tang|Muzong]], [[Emperor Jingzong of Tang|Jingzong]], [[Emperor Wenzong of Tang|Wenzong]], [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang|Wuzong]], and [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Xuanzong]], a period coinciding almost exactly with Li Shangyin's life. According to [[Chen Yinke]], the struggle was also due to a difference in social background between the two groups, one representing the traditional ruling class of North China and the other the newly risen class of scholar-officials who reached their positions through the civil service examinations. In any case, many intellectuals and high officials were involved in this struggle. When members of one faction were in power, people associated with the other would be demoted, or out of favor. The factional strife kept court officials from uniting against the increasing power of the eunuchs.{{fact|date=October 2023}}


=== Decline of the eunuchs ===
=== Decline of the eunuchs ===
The emperors, rendered completely helpless, tried to play one force against another. It was some fifty years after Li Shangyin's death that the eunuchs were finally eradicated with the help of the military governors, precipitating the downfall of the Tang dynasty. The forty-five years of Li Shangyin's life covered the reign of six emperors. Among them, Xianzong and Jingzong were murdered by the eunuchs. Muzong, Wuzong, and Xuanzong indulged in escapist practices; Wuzong, for example, died of an overdose of elixir drugs.{{fact|date=October 2023}}
The emperors, rendered completely helpless, tried to play one force against another. It was 50 years after Li Shangyin's death that the eunuchs were finally eradicated with the help of the military governors, precipitating the Tang dynasty's downfall. The 45 years of Li Shangyin's life spanned the reign of six emperors. Among them, Xianzong and Jingzong were murdered by the eunuchs. Muzong, Wuzong, and Xuanzong indulged in escapist practices; Wuzong, for example, died of an overdose of elixir drugs.{{fact|date=October 2023}}


==Poetry==
==Poetry==
Li Shangyin is well known for his poetry. In the many published editions of the poetry anthology ''[[Three Hundred Tang Poems]]'', the number of Li Shangyin's poems included ranks below only [[Du Fu]], [[Li Bai]], and [[Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)|Wang Wei]], respectively. Li's poetry is distinguished from mainstream [[Classical Chinese poetry]] by his extensive use of love as a major theme as well as the unconventional decision to leave many collected verses untitled.<ref>A. C. Graham 1977, 142</ref><ref>A. C. Graham 1977, 145</ref>
Li Shangyin is well known for his poetry. In the many published editions of the poetry anthology ''[[Three Hundred Tang Poems]]'', the number of his poems ranks below only [[Du Fu]], [[Li Bai]], and [[Wang Wei (Tang dynasty)|Wang Wei]]. Li's poetry is distinguished from mainstream [[Classical Chinese poetry]] by his extensive use of love as a major theme as well as the unconventional decision to leave many collected verses untitled.<ref>A. C. Graham 1977, 142</ref><ref>A. C. Graham 1977, 145</ref>


Li was a typical Late Tang poet: his works were sensuous, dense and [[Allusion|allusive]]. The latter quality made adequate translation extremely difficult. The political, biographical, or philosophical implications contained in some of his poems have been a subject of debate for many centuries in China.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}
Li was a typical Late Tang poet: his works were sensuous, dense and allusive. The latter quality made adequate translation extremely difficult. The political, biographical, or philosophical implications contained in some of his poems have been a subject of debate for many centuries in China.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}


===Poetic style===
===Poetic style===

Revision as of 09:56, 13 December 2023

Li Shangyin
Native name
李商隱
Bornc. 813
Diedc. 858
OccupationPoet, politician
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese李商隱
Simplified Chinese李商隐
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinLǐ Shāngyǐn
Wade–GilesLi3 Shang1-yin3
IPA[lì ʂáŋ.ìn]
Yue: Cantonese
JyutpingLei5 Soeng1-jan2
IPA[lej˩˧ sœŋ˥ jɐn˧˥]
Middle Chinese
Middle ChineseLjɨB Śjang-ɁjənB
Japanese name
Kanji李商隠
Hiraganaり しょういん
Transcriptions
RomanizationRi Shō-in
In this Chinese name, the family name is Li.

Li Shangyin (Chinese: 李商隱; pinyin: Lǐ Shāngyǐn, c. 813–858), courtesy name Yishan (Chinese: 義山), was a Chinese poet and politician of the late Tang dynasty, born in the Henei Commandery (now Qinyang, Henan). He is noted for his imagist and "no-title" (Chinese: 無題; pinyin: wútí) poetic style. Li has been frequently anthologized, and many of his poems have been translated into various languages, including several collections in English.[1][2]

Biography

Li Shangyin was born in 812 or 813 CE. The exact date is uncertain.[3] His career was rough, and he never obtained a high-ranking position, because of either factional disputes or his association with Liu Fen (劉蕡), a prominent opponent of the eunuchs.[4]

Historical background

Li lived at a time when the Tang dynasty was rapidly declining, after 200 years of glorious reign.[5]

Culturally, politically, and economically, the Tang was one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. The cosmopolitan capital of Chang'an was filled with traders from the Middle East and other parts of Asia where many Asian vassal states sent envoys to pay tribute. The empire covered a vast territory, the largest yet in Chinese history. Under the reign of Emperors Gaozuyi through Taizong, Empress Wu, and Emperor Xuanzong, the Tang empire steadily grew to the height of its prosperity.[citation needed]

But after the An Lushan Rebellion, the country's political and economic structure began to disintegrate. The rebel generals fighting against the Tang court during and after the rebellion were allowed to surrender and given military governor posts, even after the rebellion's leaders were vanquished. Peace and stability over the entire area of Hebei was heavily bought by a compromise settlement. These provincial governors paid only lip service to the central government. The court, now weak and impotent, tolerated their growing independence, wary also of the aggression of the Tibetans toward the northwest who posed a constant threat to the capital.[citation needed]

During the subsequent years, military governors repeatedly challenged imperial authority with attempts to claim hereditary succession, resulting in revolts and bloodshed. Apart from this loss of control over the provincial military leaders and other problems at the frontiers, the Tang court was internally plagued by the increasingly powerful eunuchs and the fierce Niu–Li factional strife.[citation needed]

Rise of the eunuchs

The eunuchs first gained political influence as a group when Gao Lishi helped Emperor Xuanzong rise to power. Later, Li Fuguo also helped put Emperor Suzong on the throne. By gaining royal patronage, eunuchs gradually controlled personal access to the emperors and participated in the business of the central government. They also involved themselves with provincial appointments, at times even intervening with armed forces in disputes over imperial successions. By the time of Li Shangyin, the emperors had allowed the eunuchs to become fully entrenched both militarily and politically. After Xuanzong, all Tang emperors (except Jingzong) were put on the throne by the eunuchs.[citation needed]

Sweet Dew Incident

In 835 the infamous "Sweet Dew Incident" occurred during the reign of Emperor Wenzong. A palace coup, designed by Li Xun (the prime minister) and Zheng Zhu (the military governor of Fengxiang) in support of Wenzong's effort to overthrow the eunuchs, failed. The eunuchs, led by Qiu Shiliang, slaughtered the clans of many high officials and chief ministers. Many other innocent people were killed in connection with this event. The eunuchs, whose power had been growing out of control, now completely dominated the Emperor and the affairs of state.[citation needed]

Niu-Li factional strife

The Niu-Li factional strife was another destructive internal force haunting the Tang court. The Niu and Li factions were not organized political parties, but two groups of rival politicians, hostile toward each other as a result of personal animosity. The Niu faction was represented by Niu Sengru and Li Zongmin and the Li faction by Li Deyu. In the 830s the two contending factions created much turmoil in court through the reigns of Emperors Muzong, Jingzong, Wenzong, Wuzong, and Xuanzong, a period coinciding almost exactly with Li Shangyin's life. According to Chen Yinke, the struggle was also due to a difference in social background between the two groups, one representing the traditional ruling class of North China and the other the newly risen class of scholar-officials who reached their positions through the civil service examinations. In any case, many intellectuals and high officials were involved in this struggle. When members of one faction were in power, people associated with the other would be demoted, or out of favor. The factional strife kept court officials from uniting against the increasing power of the eunuchs.[citation needed]

Decline of the eunuchs

The emperors, rendered completely helpless, tried to play one force against another. It was 50 years after Li Shangyin's death that the eunuchs were finally eradicated with the help of the military governors, precipitating the Tang dynasty's downfall. The 45 years of Li Shangyin's life spanned the reign of six emperors. Among them, Xianzong and Jingzong were murdered by the eunuchs. Muzong, Wuzong, and Xuanzong indulged in escapist practices; Wuzong, for example, died of an overdose of elixir drugs.[citation needed]

Poetry

Li Shangyin is well known for his poetry. In the many published editions of the poetry anthology Three Hundred Tang Poems, the number of his poems ranks below only Du Fu, Li Bai, and Wang Wei. Li's poetry is distinguished from mainstream Classical Chinese poetry by his extensive use of love as a major theme as well as the unconventional decision to leave many collected verses untitled.[6][7]

Li was a typical Late Tang poet: his works were sensuous, dense and allusive. The latter quality made adequate translation extremely difficult. The political, biographical, or philosophical implications contained in some of his poems have been a subject of debate for many centuries in China.[citation needed]

Poetic style

Li's poetry takes various Classical Chinese poetry forms. The Chinese critical tradition tends to depict Li as the Tang dynasty's last great poet.[8] The Tang dynasty ended in 907 CE and, after a period of disunity, was succeeded by the Song dynasty in 960 CE. The Song poetry style, although drawing on traditional forms, is especially noted for the development of the ci (Wade-Giles: t'zu) form, which was characterized by providing fresh lyrics to fixed-meter tunes. Li Shangyin's poetry played an important transitional role as part of this developmental process.[9][10] James J. Y. Liu, who shared the first comprehensive collection of English translations of Li's poetry,[11] described him as "one of the most ambiguous if not the most ambiguous poets."[12]

The Brocade Zither (Chin-se, 錦瑟)

Li's most famous and cryptic poem is arguably "Jin Se", or "Chin-se" (錦瑟) ("The Brocade Zither," also translated as "The Ornamented Zither"[13] or "The Exquisite Zither"[14]) (the title is taken from the first two characters of the first verse, as this is one of Li's "no title" poems) (original text and translation seen below), consisting of 56 characters and a string of images.[15][16]

James J. Y. Liu noted that there were five major interpretations of what Li intended to convey, including frustration about his career trajectory and commemoration of his deceased wife, among others.[13]

Derangements of My Contemporaries (Za Zuan, 雜纂)

Derangements of My Contemporaries (Za Zuan, 雜纂, or "random compilations") was not viewed as poetry nor prose in Li's lifetime, but some scholars considered it a precedent for The Pillow Book authored by Sei Shōnagon, and believed that it offered a peak into the Tang dynasty beyond its classic image of a cultural “golden age.”[17]

Chloe Garcia Roberts translated it in 2013 with a grant from PEN America.[18][19] The volume was published in 2014 with New Directions.[20] Lucas Klein of Arizona State University, another key translator of Li's poetry,[21][22] described Roberts' work as a "small rebirth of the poetic vanguard of Chinese poetry translation" in a 2016 Los Angeles Review of Books essay titled Tribunals of Erudition and Taste: or, Why Translations of Premodern Chinese Poetry Are Having a Moment Right Now.[17]

Selected poems

The Brocade Zither (Chin-se, 錦瑟)

-- Translated by Stephen Owen in The Late Tang: Chinese Poetry of the Mid-Ninth Century (827–860)[23]

I wonder why this splendid zither has fifty strings

Every string, every peg evokes those glorious springs

Perplexed as the sage, waking from his butterfly dream

Like the king, entrust to the cuckoo my heart evergreen

The moon bathes the teardrop pearl in the blue sea

The sun lights the radiant jade in indigo mountain

These feelings remain a cherished memory

But I was already lost at that moment

-- Translated by Lien W.S. and Foo C.W. in Tang Poems Revisited,[14] and as cited by Maja Lavrač of the University of Ljubljana in Li Shangyin and the Art of Poetic Ambiguity[24]

高閣客竟去， 小園花亂飛。
參差連曲陌， 迢遞送斜暉。
腸斷未忍掃， 眼穿仍欲歸。
芳心向春盡， 所得是沾衣。

Gone is the guest from the Chamber of Rank,
And petals, confused in my little garden,
Zigzagging down my crooked path,
Escort like dancers the setting sun.
Oh, how can I bear to sweep them away?
To a sad-eyed watcher they never return.
Heart's fragrance is spent with the ending of spring
And nothing left but a tear-stained robe.

— Translated by Witter Bynner, in Tang Shi San Bai Shou (300 Tang Poems)[25]

相见时难别亦难，东风无力百花残。
春蚕到死丝方尽，蜡炬成灰泪始干。
晓镜但愁云鬓改，夜吟应觉月光寒。
蓬山此去无多路，青鸟殷勤为探看。

It’s hard to be together harder yet apart
Flowers wilt in frost while memories last
Like silk exhaust until the worm depart
And candle melts like teardrops fast
Vexed with grey hair in the mirror behold
My lady moan in the moonlight cold
The paths to Mystic Hill are few
Caladrius please give my love a view.

In 1968, Roger Waters of the rock band Pink Floyd borrowed lines from Li's poetry to create the lyrics for the song "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun" from the band's second album A Saucerful of Secrets.[citation needed]

More recently, Li Shangyin's poem "When Will I Be Home?" is alluded to and quoted from by the protagonist of Peter Heller's 2012 novel, The Dog Stars. The novel ends with a reprinting of the poem in full.[26]

His name is mentioned, and one of his poems is quoted, in Episode 119 of the Korean TV series 구암 허준.[citation needed]

Notes

  1. ^ Klein, Lucas (2016). "Pseudo-Pseudotranslation: On the Potential for Annotation in Translating Li Shangyin / 李商隱英譯本中的注釋". Journal of Oriental Studies. 49 (1): 49–72. JSTOR 44009434.
  2. ^ "Li Shangyin". New York Review Books. 2018-07-31. Retrieved 2023-10-30.
  3. ^ A. C. Graham 1977, 141
  4. ^ Zeng, Li (1997). "The art of allusion in Li Shangyin". hdl:1807/10916. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. ^ "Li Shangyin | Tang Dynasty, Poetry, Lyrical | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-10-03.
  6. ^ A. C. Graham 1977, 142
  7. ^ A. C. Graham 1977, 145
  8. ^ David Hinton 2008, 308
  9. ^ A. C. Graham 1977, 141-142
  10. ^ David Hinton 2008, 308
  11. ^ Bowden, Emily Carol (31 May 2015). A Failure to Communicate: Li Shangyin's Hermetic Legacy (Thesis). hdl:1808/19187.
  12. ^ Schneider, Franz K (Fall 1969). "Liu, "The Poetry of Li Shang-yin: Ninth-Century Baroque Poet" (Book Review)". Western Humanities Review. 23 (4): 353. ProQuest 1291801183.
  13. ^ a b Liu, James J. Y. (1965). "Li Shang-Yin's Poem "The Ornamented Zither" (Chin-sê)". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 85 (2): 129–138. doi:10.2307/597983. JSTOR 597983.
  14. ^ a b Lien, Wen-sze, ed. (1993). Tang poems revisited: a choice selection in English (reprint ed.). Singapore: EPB Publ. ISBN 978-9971-0-0245-9.
  15. ^ Iovene, Paola (2007). "Why Is There a Poem in This Story? Li Shangyin's Poetry, Contemporary Chinese Literature, and the Futures of the Past". Modern Chinese Literature and Culture. 19 (2): 71–116. JSTOR 41490982.
  16. ^ "Li Shang-yin and the Baroque- Journal of Foreign Languages and Cultures". jflc.hunnu.edu.cn. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  17. ^ a b Klein, Lucas (2016-07-14). "Tribunals of Erudition and Taste: or, Why Translations of Premodern Chinese Poetry Are Having a Moment Right Now". Los Angeles Review of Books. Retrieved 2023-10-30.
  18. ^ Shangyin, Li (2013-09-11). "Five Poems from Derangements of My Contemporaries". PEN America. Retrieved 2023-10-30.
  19. ^ Garcia Roberts, Chloe (2013-09-11). "On Translating Li Shangyin". PEN America. Retrieved 2023-10-30.
  20. ^ Garcia Roberts, Chloe (2014). Derangements of my contemporaries : miscellaneous notes / Li Shangyin ; translated from the Chinese by Chloe Garcia Roberts = Za zuan / Li Shangyin. New Directions. ISBN 9780811221962.
  21. ^ Klein, Lucas (2016-07-02). "Dislocating Language into Meaning: Difficult Anglophone Poetry and Chinese Poetics in Translation—Toward a Culturally Translatable Li Shangyin". Symposium: A Quarterly Journal in Modern Literatures. 70 (3): 133–142. doi:10.1080/00397709.2016.1207465. hdl:10722/228767. ISSN 0039-7709.
  22. ^ KLEIN, Lucas (2017-01-01). "Strong and Weak Interpretations in Translating Chinese Poetry". Journal of Modern Literature in Chinese 現代中文文學學報. 14 (2). ISSN 1026-5120.
  23. ^ Owen, Stephen (2009-03-31). The Late Tang: Chinese Poetry of the Mid-Ninth Century (827–860). Harvard East Asian Monographs. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03328-3.
  24. ^ Lavrač, Maja. "Li Shangyin and the Art of Poetic Ambiguity". Retrieved October 12, 2023.
  25. ^ Witter Bynner, 1920
  26. ^ "The Dog Stars Reader's Guide" (PDF). The Deschutes Public Library Foundation. Retrieved November 24, 2023.

References

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