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Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses.^[1]^: 6 It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater.^[2] Water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation.^[3] Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem services such as drinking water provided by the water resource.

Sources of water pollution are either point sources or non-point sources. Point sources have one identifiable cause, such as a storm drain, a wastewater treatment plant or an oil spill. Non-point sources are more diffuse. An example is agricultural runoff.^[4] Pollution is the result of the cumulative effect over time. Pollution may take many forms. One would is toxic substances such as oil, metals, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, and industrial waste products. Another is stressful conditions such as changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, or changes of salinity). The introduction of pathogenic organisms is another. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans as well as legislation. Technology solutions can include improving sanitation, sewage treatment, industrial wastewater treatment, agricultural wastewater treatment, erosion control, sediment control and control of urban runoff (including stormwater management).

Definition

A practical definition of water pollution is: "Water pollution is the addition of substances or energy forms that directly or indirectly alter the nature of the water body in such a manner that negatively affects its legitimate uses."^[1]^: 6 Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants. Due to these contaminants, it either no longer supports a certain human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its biotic communities, such as fish.

Contaminants

Contaminants with an origin in sewage

The following compounds can all reach water bodies via raw sewage or even treated sewage discharges:

Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.
Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water (whilst these chemicals can be a pollutant in the water distribution network, they are fairly volatile and therefore not usually found in environmental waters).^[5]
Hormones (from animal husbandry and residue from human hormonal contraception methods) and synthetic materials such as phthalates that mimic hormones in their action. These can have adverse impacts even at very low concentrations on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is treated and utilized for drinking water.^[6]^[7]^[8]
insecticides and herbicides, often from agricultural runoff.
Pathogens like Hepatovirus A (HAV may be present in treated wastewater outflows and receiving water bodies but is largely removed during further treatment of drinking water^[9])

Inadequately treated wastewater can convey nutrients, pathogens, heterogenous suspended solids and organic fecal matter.^[1]^: 6

Pollutants and their effects*
Pollutant	Main representative parameter	Possible effect of the pollutant
Suspended solids	Total suspended solids	Aesthetic problems Sludge deposits Pollutants adsorption Protection of pathogens
Biodegradable organic matter	Biological oxygen demand (BOD)	Oxygen consumption Death of fish Septic conditions
Nutrients	Nitrogen Phosphorus	Excessive algae growth Toxicity to fish (ammonia) Illnesses in new-born infants (blue baby syndrome from nitrate) Pollution of groundwater
Pathogens	Coliforms, such as E. coli, may not be pathogenic in and of themselves, but are used as an indicator of co-occurring pathogens that should take slightly less time to die or degrade^[1]^: 51 Helminth eggs^[1]^: 55^[10]	Waterborne diseases
Non-biodegradable organic matter	Pesticides Some detergents Others	Toxicity (various) Foam (detergents) Reduction of oxygen transfer (detergents) Non-biodegradability Bad odors (e.g.: phenols)
Inorganic dissolved solids	Total dissolved solids Conductivity	Excessive salinity – harm to plantations (irrigation) Toxicity to plants (some ions) Problems with soil permeability (sodium)
* Sources of these pollutants are household and industrial wastewater, urban runoff and stormwater drainage from agricultural areas^[1]^: 7

Pathogens

Bacteria, viruses, protozoans and parasitic worms are examples of pathogens that can be found in wastewater.^[1]^: 47 In practice, indicator organisms are used to investigate pathogenic pollution of water because the detection of pathogenic organisms in water sample is difficult and costly, because of their low concentrations. The indicators (bacterial indicator) of fecal contamination of water samples most commonly used are total coliforms (TC) or fecal coliforms (FC), the latter also referred to as thermotolerant coliforms, such as Escherichia coli.^[1]^: 52–53

Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts.^[11] Some microorganisms sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused human health problems include Burkholderia pseudomallei, Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, Salmonella, norovirus and other viruses, and parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type.^[12]

The source of high levels of pathogens in water bodies can be from human feces (due to open defecation), sewage, blackwater, or manure that has found its way into the water body. The cause for this can be lack of sanitation procedures or poorly functioning on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines), sewage treatment plants without disinfection steps, sanitary sewer overflows and combined sewer overflows (CSOs)^[13] during storm events and intensive agriculture (poorly managed livestock operations).

Organic compounds

Organic substances that enter water bodies are often toxic.^[14]^: 229

Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from oil spills or storm water runoff^[15]
Volatile organic compounds, such as improperly stored industrial solvents. Problematic species are organochlorides such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and trichloroethylene, a common solvent.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent organic pollutants.^[16]^[17]

Inorganic contaminants

Inorganic water pollutants include for example:

Ammonia from food processing waste
Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)^[15]^[18] and acid mine drainage
Nitrates and phosphates, from sewage and agriculture (see nutrient pollution)
Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites or sewage, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites.
Salt: Freshwater salinization is the process of salty runoff contaminating freshwater ecosystems.^[19] Human-induced salinization is termed as secondary salinization, with the use of de-icing road salts as the most common form of runoff.^[20]^[21]

Pharmaceutical pollutants

The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is being investigated since at least the 1990s. PPCPs include substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock. More than twenty million tons of PPCPs are produced every year.^[22] The European Union has declared pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil to be "priority substances".^[3]

PPCPs have been detected in water bodies throughout the world. More research is needed to evaluate the risks of toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation, but the current state of research shows that personal care products impact the environment and other species, such as coral reefs^[23]^[24]^[25] and fish.^[26]^[27] PPCPs encompass environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs) and are one type of persistent organic pollutants. They are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants but require a fourth treatment stage which not many plants have.^[22]

In 2022, the most comprehensive study of pharmaceutical pollution of the world's rivers found that it threatens "environmental and/or human health in more than a quarter of the studied locations". It investigated 1,052 sampling sites along 258 rivers in 104 countries, representing the river pollution of 470 million people. It found that "the most contaminated sites were in low- to middle-income countries and were associated with areas with poor wastewater and waste management infrastructure and pharmaceutical manufacturing" and lists the most frequently detected and concentrated pharmaceuticals.^[28]^[29]

Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants, which can include various pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites (see also drug pollution), such as antidepressant drugs, antibiotics or the contraceptive pill.
Metabolites of illicit drugs (see also wastewater epidemiology), for example methamphetamine and ecstasy.^[30]^[31]

Solid waste and plastics

Solid waste can enter water bodies through untreated sewage, combined sewer overflows, urban runoff, people discarding garbage into the environment, wind carrying municipal solid waste from landfills and so forth. This results in macroscopic pollution– large visible items polluting the water– but also microplastics pollution that is not directly visible. The terms marine debris and marine plastic pollution are used in the context of pollution of oceans.

Microplastics persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution.^[32] 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process.^[33]

Stormwater, untreated sewage and wind are the primary conduits for microplastics from land to sea. Synthetic fabrics, tyres, and city dust are the most common sources of microplastics. These three sources account for more than 80% of all microplastic contamination.^[34]^[35]

Types of surface water pollution

Surface water pollution includes pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans. A subset of surface water pollution is marine pollution which affects the oceans. Nutrient pollution refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients.

Globally, about 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation as of 2017, according to an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.^[36] Lack of access to sanitation is concerning and often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice of open defecation: during rain events or floods, the human feces are moved from the ground where they were deposited into surface waters. Simple pit latrines may also get flooded during rain events.

As of 2022, Europe and Central Asia account for around 16% of global microplastics discharge into the seas,^[34]^[37] and although management of plastic waste and its recycling is improving globally, the absolute amount of plastic pollution continues to increase unabated due to the large amount of plastic that is being produced and disposed of.^[38] Even if sea plastic pollution were to stop entirely, microplastic contamination of the surface ocean would be projected to continue to increase.^[38]

Marine pollution

Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well.^[39] It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.^[40] Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean.^[41] The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.^[42] Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution, bilge pollution, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining.

Nutrient pollution

Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters (lakes, rivers and coastal waters), in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algal growth.^[43] Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from farm fields and pastures, discharges from septic tanks and feedlots, and emissions from combustion. Raw sewage is a large contributor to cultural eutrophication since sewage is high in nutrients. Releasing raw sewage into a large water body is referred to as sewage dumping, and still occurs all over the world. Excess reactive nitrogen compounds in the environment are associated with many large-scale environmental concerns. These include eutrophication of surface waters, harmful algal blooms, hypoxia, acid rain, nitrogen saturation in forests, and climate change.^[44]

Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution, sometimes called "thermal enrichment", is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal pollution is the rise or drop in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.^[45] Urban runoff—stormwater discharged to surface waters from rooftops, roads, and parking lots—and reservoirs can also be a source of thermal pollution.^[46] Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels (due to lower levels of dissolved oxygen, as gases are less soluble in warmer liquids), which can kill fish (which may then rot) and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.^[47]^: 179^[14]^: 375

Biological pollution

The introduction of aquatic invasive organisms is a form of water pollution as well. It causes biological pollution.^[48]

Groundwater pollution

Groundwater pollution (also called groundwater contamination) occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and make their way into groundwater. This type of water pollution can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as contamination rather than pollution. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site sanitation systems, landfill leachate, effluent from wastewater treatment plants, leaking sewers, petrol filling stations, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) or from over application of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride.^[49] Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease (water-borne diseases).

In many areas of the world, groundwater pollution poses a hazard to the wellbeing of people and ecosystems. One-quarter of the world's population depends on groundwater for drinking, yet concentrated recharging is known to carry short-lived contaminants into carbonate aquifers and jeopardize the purity of those waters.^[50]

Pollution from point sources

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.

The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes (see United States regulation of point source water pollution).^[51] The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.^[52]

Sewage

Sewage typically consists of 99.9% water and 0.1% solids.^[53] Sewage contributes many classes of nutrients that lead to eutrophication. It is a major source of phosphate for example.^[54] Sewage is often contaminated with diverse compounds found in personal hygiene, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs (see also drug pollution), and their metabolites^[55]^[31] Water pollution due to environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants can have wide-ranging consequences. When sewers overflow during storm events this can lead to water pollution from untreated sewage. Such events are called sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows.

A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

Industrial wastewater

Industrial processes that use water also produce wastewater. This is called industrial wastewater. Using the US as an example, the main industrial consumers of water (using over 60% of the total consumption) are power plants, petroleum refineries, iron and steel mills, pulp and paper mills, and food processing industries.^[2] Some industries discharge chemical wastes, including solvents and heavy metals (which are toxic) and other harmful pollutants.

Industrial wastewater could add the following pollutants to receiving water bodies if the wastewater is not treated and managed properly:

Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and chromium
Organic matter and nutrients such as food waste: Certain industries (e.g. food processing, slaughterhouse waste, paper fibers, plant material, etc.) discharge high concentrations of BOD, ammonia nitrogen and oil and grease.^[57]^: 180^[14]
Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, rubber residues from tires, ceramics, etc.;
Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.
Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, hormones, perfluorinated compounds, siloxanes, drugs of abuse and other hazardous substances^[58]^[59]^[60]
Microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, polyester and polyamide^[61]
Thermal pollution from power stations and industrial manufacturers
Radionuclides from uranium mining, processing nuclear fuel, operating nuclear reactors, or disposal of radioactive waste.
Some industrial discharges include persistent organic pollutants such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).^[16]^[17]

Oil spills

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills can result from the release of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs, and wells. They may also involve spills of refined petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel fuel, as well as their by-products. Additionally, heavier fuels used by large ships, such as bunker fuel, or spills of any oily refuse or waste oil, contribute to such incidents. These spills can have severe environmental and economic consequences.

Pollution from nonpoint sources

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination (or pollution) of water or air that does not originate from a single discrete source. This type of pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. It is in contrast to point source pollution which results from a single source. Nonpoint source pollution generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage, seepage, or hydrological modification (rainfall and snowmelt) where tracing pollution back to a single source is difficult.^[62] Nonpoint source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Nonpoint source air pollution affects air quality, from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a nonpoint source of pollution; if the discharges were to occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location, the pollution would be single-point.

Agriculture

Agriculture is a major contributor to water pollution from nonpoint sources. The use of fertilizers as well as surface runoff from farm fields, pastures and feedlots leads to nutrient pollution.^[63] In addition to plant-focused agriculture, fish-farming is also a source of pollution. Additionally, agricultural runoff often contains high levels of pesticides.^[2]

Atmospheric contributions (air pollution)

Air deposition is a process whereby air pollutants from industrial or natural sources settle into water bodies. The deposition may lead to polluted water near the source, or at distances up to a few thousand miles away. The most frequently observed water pollutants resulting from industrial air deposition are sulfur compounds, nitrogen compounds, mercury compounds, other heavy metals, and some pesticides and industrial by-products. Natural sources of air deposition include forest fires and microbial activity.^[64]

Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.^[65] Some governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere. The main source of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result in acid rain are anthropogenic, but nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulphur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions.^[66] Acid rain can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic ecosystems and infrastructure.^[67]^[68]

Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere have increased since the 1850s due anthropogenic influences (emissions of greenhouse gases).^[69] This leads to ocean acidification and is another form of water pollution from atmospheric contributions.^[70]

Sampling, measurements, analysis

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature. Others involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests in the laboratory. Standardized, validated analytical test methods, for water and wastewater samples have been published.^[71]

Common physical tests of water include temperature, Specific conductance or electrical conductance (EC) or conductivity, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Water samples may be examined using analytical chemistry methods. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used parameters that are quantified are pH, BOD,^[72]^: 102 chemical oxygen demand (COD),^[72]^: 104 dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, e.g. nitrate and orthophosphates), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), surfactants and pesticides.

The use of a biomonitor or bioindicator is described as biological monitoring. This refers to the measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain information on the surrounding physical and chemical environment.^[73] Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is present.^[74] One example of a group of bio-indicators are the copepods and other small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on-site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Impacts

Ecosystems

Water pollution is a major global environmental problem because it can result in the degradation of all aquatic ecosystems – fresh, coastal, and ocean waters.^[75] The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually determines what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as human-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.^[76]

Public health and waterborne diseases

A study published in 2017 stated that "polluted water spread gastrointestinal diseases and parasitic infections and killed 1.8 million people" (these are also referred to as waterborne diseases).^[77] Persistent exposure to pollutants through water are environmental health hazards, which can increase the likelihood for one to develop cancer or other diseases.^[78]

Eutrophication from nitrogen pollution

Nitrogen pollution can cause eutrophication, especially in lakes. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur.^[1]^: 131 This can harm fish and other animal populations.

Eutrophication is a general term describing a process in which nutrients accumulate in a body of water, resulting in an increased growth of microorganisms that may deplete the oxygen of water.^[79]^[80] Eutrophication may occur naturally or as a result of human actions. Manmade, or cultural, eutrophication occurs when sewage, industrial wastewater, fertilizer runoff, and other nutrient sources are released into the environment.^[81] Such nutrient pollution usually causes algal blooms and bacterial growth, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water and causing substantial environmental degradation.^[82]

Ocean acidification

Ocean acidification is another impact of water pollution. Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH value of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere.^[69]

Prevalence

Water pollution is a problem in developing countries as well as in developed countries.

By country

For example, water pollution in India and China is widespread. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted.^[83]

Control and reduction

Pollution control philosophy

One aspect of environmental protection are mandatory regulations but they are only part of the solution. Other important tools in pollution control include environmental education, economic instruments, market forces and stricter enforcements. Standards can be "precise" (for a defined quantifiable minimum or maximum value for a pollutant), or "imprecise" which would require the use of Best available technology (BAT) or Best practicable environmental option (BPEO). Market-based economic instruments for pollution control can include: charges, subsidies, deposit or refund schemes, the creation of a market in pollution credits, and enforcement incentives.^[84]

Moving towards a holistic approach in chemical pollution control combines the following approaches: Integrated control measures, trans-boundary considerations, complementary and supplementary control measures, life-cycle considerations, the impacts of chemical mixtures.^[84]

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The infrastructure may include wastewater treatment plants, for example sewage treatment plants and industrial wastewater treatment plants. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms, and erosion control at construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Effective control of urban runoff includes reducing speed and quantity of flow.

Water pollution requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).

Sanitation and sewage treatment

Municipal wastewater can be treated by centralized sewage treatment plants, decentralized wastewater systems, nature-based solutions^[85] or in onsite sewage facilities and septic tanks. For example, waste stabilization ponds can be a low cost treatment option for sewage.^[1]^: 182 UV light (sunlight) can be used to degrade some pollutants in waste stabilization ponds (sewage lagoons).^[86] The use of safely managed sanitation services would prevent water pollution caused by lack of access to sanitation.^[36]

Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with secondary treatment stages or more advanced tertiary treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load in sewage.^[87] Some plants have additional systems to remove nutrients and pathogens. While such advanced treatment techniques will undoubtedly reduce the discharges of micropollutants, they can also result in large financial costs, as well as environmentally undesirable increases in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.^[88]

Sewer overflows during storm events can be addressed by timely maintenance and upgrades of the sewerage system. In the US, cities with large combined systems have not pursued system-wide separation projects due to the high cost,^[89] but have implemented partial separation projects and green infrastructure approaches.^[90] In some cases municipalities have installed additional CSO storage facilities^[91] or expanded sewage treatment capacity.^[92]

Industrial wastewater treatment

Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating wastewater that is produced by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that can be treated in sewage treatment plants. Most industrial processes, such as petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have their own specialized facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewers or into rivers, lakes or oceans.^[93]^: 1412 This applies to industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia.^[94]^: 180 Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system.^[95]^: 60

Agricultural wastewater treatment

Agricultural wastewater treatment is a farm management agenda for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and from surface runoff that may be contaminated by chemicals in fertilizer, pesticides, animal slurry, crop residues or irrigation water. Agricultural wastewater treatment is required for continuous confined animal operations like milk and egg production. It may be performed in plants using mechanized treatment units similar to those used for industrial wastewater. Where land is available for ponds, settling basins and facultative lagoons may have lower operational costs for seasonal use conditions from breeding or harvest cycles.^[96]^: 6–8 Animal slurries are usually treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes.

Management of erosion and sediment control

Sediment from construction sites can be managed by installation of erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.^[97] Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout can be prevented by use of spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.^[98]

Erosion caused by deforestation and changes in hydrology (soil loss due to water runoff) also results in loss of sediment and, potentially, water pollution.^[99]^[100]

Control of urban runoff (storm water)

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management practices for water pollution (BMPs) in some countries, may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions.^[101]

Pollution prevention practices include low impact development (LID) or green infrastructure techniques - known as Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) in the UK, and Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) in Australia and the Middle East - such as the installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers, pesticides and roadway deicers).^[102]^[103] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins, and similar devices.^[104]^[105]

Share of water bodies with good water quality in 2020. A water body is classified as "good" quality if at least 80% of monitoring values meet target quality levels, see also SDG 6, Indicator 6.3.2.

Legislation

Philippines

In the Philippines, Republic Act 9275, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004,^[106] is the governing law on wastewater management. It states that it is the country's policy to protect, preserve and revive the quality of its fresh, brackish and marine waters, for which wastewater management plays a particular role.^[106]

United States

The Clean Water Act is the primary federal law in the United States governing water pollution in surface waters.^[107] The 1972 CWA amendments established a broad regulatory framework for improving water quality. The law defines procedures for pollution control and developing criteria and standards for pollutants in surface water.^[108] The law authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate surface water pollution in the United States, in partnership with state agencies. Prior to 1972 it was legal to discharge wastewater to surface waters without testing for or removing water pollutants. The CWA was amended in 1981 and 1987 to adjust the federal proportion of construction grant funding for local governments, regulate municipal storm sewer discharges and to later establish the Clean Water State Revolving Fund. The fund provides low-interest loans to improve municipal sewage treatment systems and finance other water quality improvements.^[109]

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External links

Library resources about
Water pollution

Tackling global water pollution – UN Environment Programme

[Von_Sperling-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Von Sperling, Marcos (2007). Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal. Biological Wastewater Treatment. Vol. 6. IWA Publishing. doi:10.2166/9781780402086. ISBN 978-1-78040-208-6. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)

[Eckenfelder-2] Eckenfelder Jr WW (2000). Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1615121205031105.a01. ISBN 978-0-471-48494-3.

[3] "Water Pollution". Environmental Health Education Program. Cambridge, MA: Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. July 23, 2013. Archived from the original on September 18, 2021. Retrieved September 18, 2021.

[Moss2008-4] Moss B (February 2008). "Water pollution by agriculture". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 363 (1491): 659–666. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2176. PMC 2610176. PMID 17666391.

[5] Alexandrou L, Meehan BJ, Jones OA (October 2018). "Regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in recycled waters". The Science of the Total Environment. 637–638: 1607–1616. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.637.1607A. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.391. PMID 29925195. S2CID 49355478.

[6] "Environment Agency (archive) – Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic PBT substances". Environment Agency (UK). Archived from the original on August 4, 2006. Retrieved November 14, 2012.

[7] Natural Environmental Research Council – River sewage pollution found to be disrupting fish hormones Archived April 27, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Planetearth.nerc.ac.uk. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.

[8] "Endocrine Disruption Found in Fish Exposed to Municipal Wastewater". Reston, VA: US Geological Survey. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved November 14, 2012.

[9] Takuissu GR, Kenmoe S, Ebogo-Belobo JT, Kengne-Ndé C, Mbaga DS, Bowo-Ngandji A, et al. (2023). "Occurrence of Hepatitis A Virus in Water Matrices: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (2): 1054. doi:10.3390/ijerph20021054. PMC 9859052. PMID 36673812. Art. No. 1054.

[World_Health_Organization-10] Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater, Volume 4 Excreta and Greywater Use in Agriculture (third ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2006. ISBN 92-4-154685-9.

[11] Harrison RM (2013). Harrison RM (ed.). Pollution: Causes, effects, and control (5th ed.). Cambridge, UK: Royal Society of Chemistry. doi:10.1039/9781782626527. ISBN 978-1-78262-560-5. OCLC 1007100256.

[12] Schueler, Thomas R. "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, & Pathways." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. Archived January 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.

[EPARTC-13] Report to Congress: Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs (Report). EPA. August 2004. EPA 833-R-04-001.

[Laws-aquatic-14] Laws EA (2018). Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-30450-0 – via Google Books.

[Burton_&_Pitt-15] Burton Jr GA, Pitt R (2001). "2". Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers. New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers. ISBN 0-87371-924-7. Archived from the original on May 19, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2009.

[ReferenceA-16] Johnson MS, Buck RC, Cousins IT, Weis CP, Fenton SE (March 2021). "Estimating Environmental Hazard and Risks from Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs): Outcome of a SETAC Focused Topic Meeting". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 40 (3): 543–549. doi:10.1002/etc.4784. PMC 8387100. PMID 32452041.

[linkinghub.elsevier.com-17] Sinclair GM, Long SM, Jones OA (November 2020). "What are the effects of PFAS exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations?". Chemosphere. 258: 127340. Bibcode:2020Chmsp.25827340S. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127340. PMID 32563917. S2CID 219974801.

[18] Schueler, Thomas R. "Cars Are Leading Source of Metal Loads in California." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. Archived March 12, 2012, at the Wayback Machine 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.

[Kaushal_et_al-19] Kaushal SS, Likens GE, Pace ML, Utz RM, Haq S, Gorman J, Grese M (January 2018). "Freshwater salinization syndrome on a continental scale". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (4): E574–E583. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115E.574K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1711234115. PMC 5789913. PMID 29311318.

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@@ Line 133: / Line 133: @@
 Globally, about 4.5&nbsp;billion people do not have [[Improved sanitation|safely managed sanitation]] as of 2017, according to an estimate by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]].<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines]. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref> Lack of access to sanitation is concerning and often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice of [[open defecation]]: during rain events or floods, the [[human feces]] are moved from the ground where they were deposited into surface waters. Simple [[pit latrines]] may also get flooded during rain events.
-As of 2022, [[Europe]] and [[Central Asia]] account for around 16% of global [[microplastic]]s discharge into the seas,<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ferris |first=Robert |title=Half of plastic trash in oceans comes from 5 countries |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/01/13/half-of-plastic-trash-in-oceans-comes-from-5-countries.html |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=CNBC |date=January 13, 2016 |language=en}}</ref> and although management of plastic waste and [[plastic recycling|its recycling]] is improving globally, the absolute amount of plastic pollution continues to increase unabated due to the large amount of plastic that is being produced and disposed of.<ref name=ritchie2023>{{Cite web|last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah|last2=Samborska|first2=Veronika|last3=Roser |first3=Max |year=2023|title=Plastic Pollution |url=https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution |website=Our World in Data|access-date=12 April 2024}}</ref>  Even if sea plastic pollution were to stop entirely, microplastic contamination of the surface ocean would be projected to continue to increase.<ref name=ritchie2023/>
+As of 2022, [[Europe]] and [[Central Asia]] account for around 16% of global [[microplastic]]s discharge into the seas,<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ferris |first=Robert |title=Half of plastic trash in oceans comes from 5 countries |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/01/13/half-of-plastic-trash-in-oceans-comes-from-5-countries.html |access-date=2023-03-24 |website=CNBC |date=January 13, 2016 |language=en}}</ref> and although management of plastic waste and [[plastic recycling|its recycling]] is improving globally, the absolute amount of plastic pollution continues to increase unabated due to the large amount of plastic that is being produced and disposed of.<ref name=ritchie2023>{{Cite journal|last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah|last2=Samborska|first2=Veronika|last3=Roser |first3=Max |year=2023|title=Plastic Pollution |url=https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution |journal=Our World in Data|access-date=12 April 2024}}</ref>  Even if sea plastic pollution were to stop entirely, microplastic contamination of the surface ocean would be projected to continue to increase.<ref name=ritchie2023/>
 === Marine pollution ===
@@ Line 171: / Line 171: @@
 * [[Toxins]] such as [[pesticide]]s, [[poison]]s, [[herbicide]]s, etc.
 * [[Pharmaceuticals]], endocrine disrupting compounds, hormones, perfluorinated compounds, siloxanes, drugs of abuse and other hazardous substances<ref name="pmid25889547">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arvaniti OS, Stasinakis AS |title=Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment |journal=[[The Science of the Total Environment]] |volume=524–525 |issue= |pages=81–92 |date=August 2015 |pmid=25889547 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.023 |bibcode=2015ScTEn.524...81A}}</ref><ref name="pmid23320453">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bletsou AA, Asimakopoulos AG, Stasinakis AS, Thomaidis NS, Kannan K |title=Mass loading and fate of linear and cyclic siloxanes in a wastewater treatment plant in Greece |journal=[[Environmental Science & Technology]] |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=1824–32 |date=February 2013 |pmid=23320453 |doi=10.1021/es304369b |bibcode=2013EnST...47.1824B |s2cid=39997737}}</ref><ref name="pmid27236142">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gatidou G, Kinyua J, van Nuijs AL, Gracia-Lor E, Castiglioni S, Covaci A, Stasinakis AS |title=Drugs of abuse and alcohol consumption among different groups of population on the Greek Island of Lesvos through sewage-based epidemiology |journal=[[The Science of the Total Environment]] |volume=563–564 |issue= |pages=633–40 |date=September 2016 |pmid=27236142 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.130 |bibcode=2016ScTEn.563..633G |hdl=10067/1345920151162165141|s2cid=4073701 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
-* [[Microplastics]] such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, polyester and polyamide<ref name="pmid30620926">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gatidou G, Arvaniti OS, Stasinakis AS |title=Review on the occurrence and fate of microplastics in Sewage Treatment Plants |journal=[[Journal of Hazardous Materials]] |volume=367 |issue= |pages=504–512 |date=April 2019 |pmid=30620926 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.12.081 |s2cid=58567561}}</ref>
+* [[Microplastics]] such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, polyester and polyamide<ref name="pmid30620926">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gatidou G, Arvaniti OS, Stasinakis AS |title=Review on the occurrence and fate of microplastics in Sewage Treatment Plants |journal=[[Journal of Hazardous Materials]] |volume=367 |issue= |pages=504–512 |date=April 2019 |pmid=30620926 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.12.081 |bibcode=2019JHzM..367..504G |s2cid=58567561}}</ref>
 * [[Thermal pollution]] from [[power station]]s and industrial manufacturers
 * [[Radionuclide]]s from [[uranium mining]], processing [[nuclear fuel]], operating [[nuclear reactor]]s, or disposal of [[radioactive waste]].
@@ Line 199: / Line 199: @@
 Common physical tests of water include temperature, Specific conductance or [[electrical conductance]] (EC) or conductivity, solids concentrations (e.g., [[total suspended solids]] (TSS)) and [[turbidity]]. Water samples may be examined using [[analytical chemistry]] methods. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used parameters that are quantified are [[pH]], BOD,<ref name="Newton">{{cite book |vauthors=Newton D |title=Chemistry of the Environment |publisher=Checkmark Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8160-7747-2}}</ref>{{rp|102}} [[chemical oxygen demand]] (COD),<ref name="Newton" />{{rp|104}} [[dissolved oxygen]] (DO), [[Hard water|total hardness]], nutrients ([[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] compounds, e.g. [[nitrate]] and [[orthophosphate]]s), metals (including copper, [[zinc]], [[cadmium]], lead and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]), oil and grease, total [[petroleum]] hydrocarbons (TPH), [[surfactant]]s and [[pesticide]]s.
-The use of a biomonitor or [[bioindicator]] is described as [[Biomonitoring|biological monitoring]]. This refers to the measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain information on the surrounding physical and chemical environment.<ref name=":22">{{Cite report |date=March 2016 |title=National Rivers and Streams Assessment 2008–2009: A Collaborative Study |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-03/documents/nrsa_0809_march_2_final.pdf |publisher=EPA |id=EPA 841/R-16/007}}</ref> Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an [[aquatic ecosystem]]. They are any biological species or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is present.<ref name="Karr">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karr JR |year=1981 |title=Assessment of biotic integrity using fish communities |journal=Fisheries |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=21–27 |doi=10.1577/1548-8446(1981)006<0021:AOBIUF>2.0.CO;2 |issn=1548-8446}}</ref> One example of a group of bio-indicators are the [[copepod]]s and other small water [[crustacean]]s that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.
+The use of a biomonitor or [[bioindicator]] is described as [[Biomonitoring|biological monitoring]]. This refers to the measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain information on the surrounding physical and chemical environment.<ref name=":22">{{Cite report |date=March 2016 |title=National Rivers and Streams Assessment 2008–2009: A Collaborative Study |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-03/documents/nrsa_0809_march_2_final.pdf |publisher=EPA |id=EPA 841/R-16/007}}</ref> Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an [[aquatic ecosystem]]. They are any biological species or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is present.<ref name="Karr">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karr JR |year=1981 |title=Assessment of biotic integrity using fish communities |journal=Fisheries |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=21–27 |doi=10.1577/1548-8446(1981)006<0021:AOBIUF>2.0.CO;2 |bibcode=1981Fish....6f..21K |issn=1548-8446}}</ref> One example of a group of bio-indicators are the [[copepod]]s and other small water [[crustacean]]s that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.
 {{excerpt|Water quality#Sample collection|section=Sample collection|paragraphs=1|file=no}}
@@ Line 242: / Line 242: @@
 {{Further|Sanitation|WASH|Water issues in developing countries}}
 [[File:Drainage in Ghana 4.jpg|thumb|Plastic waste on the big drainage, and air pollution in the far end of the drainage in Ghana]]
-Municipal wastewater can be treated by centralized sewage treatment plants, [[decentralized wastewater system]]s, [[nature-based solutions]]<ref name=":2">UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water], Geneva, Switzerland</ref> or in [[Onsite sewage facility|onsite sewage facilities]] and septic tanks. For example, [[waste stabilization pond]]s can be a low cost treatment option for sewage.<ref name="Von Sperling">{{Cite book|last=Von Sperling |first=Marcos |date=2007 |title=Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal |journal=Water Intelligence Online |publisher=IWA Publishing|series=Biological Wastewater Treatment|volume=6 |doi=10.2166/9781780402086 |isbn=978-1-78040-208-6 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|182}} UV light (sunlight) can be used to degrade some pollutants in waste stabilization ponds (sewage lagoons).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang Y, Fan L, Jones OA, Roddick F |title=Quantification of seasonal photo-induced formation of reactive intermediates in a municipal sewage lagoon upon sunlight exposure |journal=[[The Science of the Total Environment]] |volume=765 |pages=142733 |date=April 2021 |pmid=33572041 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142733 |s2cid=225156609 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.765n2733W}}</ref> The use of [[safely managed sanitation service]]s would prevent water pollution caused by lack of access to sanitation.<ref name="JMP2017" />
+Municipal wastewater can be treated by centralized sewage treatment plants, [[decentralized wastewater system]]s, [[nature-based solutions]]<ref name=":2">UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water], Geneva, Switzerland</ref> or in [[Onsite sewage facility|onsite sewage facilities]] and septic tanks. For example, [[waste stabilization pond]]s can be a low cost treatment option for sewage.<ref name="Von Sperling">{{Cite book|last=Von Sperling |first=Marcos |date=2007 |title=Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal |journal=Water Intelligence Online |publisher=IWA Publishing|series=Biological Wastewater Treatment|volume=6 |doi=10.2166/9781780402086 |isbn=978-1-78040-208-6 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|182}} UV light (sunlight) can be used to degrade some pollutants in waste stabilization ponds (sewage lagoons).<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wang Y, Fan L, Jones OA, Roddick F |title=Quantification of seasonal photo-induced formation of reactive intermediates in a municipal sewage lagoon upon sunlight exposure |journal=[[The Science of the Total Environment]] |volume=765 |pages=142733 |date=April 2021 |pmid=33572041 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142733 |s2cid=225156609 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.76542733W}}</ref> The use of [[safely managed sanitation service]]s would prevent water pollution caused by lack of access to sanitation.<ref name="JMP2017" />
 Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with secondary treatment stages or more advanced tertiary treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the [[Measures of pollutant concentration|pollutant load]] in sewage.<ref>{{cite report |title=Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems |url=https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=20017KBE.txt |date=2004 |publisher=[[EPA]] |page=11 |id=EPA 832-R-04-001}}</ref> Some plants have additional systems to remove [[nutrient]]s and pathogens. While such advanced treatment techniques will undoubtedly reduce the discharges of micropollutants, they can also result in large financial costs, as well as environmentally undesirable increases in energy consumption and [[greenhouse gas emissions]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Jones OA, Green PG, Voulvoulis N, Lester JN |title=Questioning the excessive use of advanced treatment to remove organic micropollutants from wastewater |journal=[[Environmental Science & Technology]] |volume=41 |issue=14 |pages=5085–5089 |date=July 2007 |pmid=17711227 |doi=10.1021/es0628248 |bibcode=2007EnST...41.5085J}}</ref>

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