Jump to content

Velvet scoter: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
add - mainly using Cramp as a source. reorganised into sections per WP:Birds. Remove "More citations" template
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2023}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Speciesbox
| name = Velvet scoter
| name = Velvet scoter
Line 9: Line 8:
| status = VU
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2020 |title=''Melanitta fusca'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T22724836A183801134 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22724836A183801134.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2020 |title=''Melanitta fusca'' |volume=2020 |page=e.T22724836A183801134 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22724836A183801134.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Melanitta
| genus = Melanitta
| parent = Melanitta (Melanitta)
| parent = Melanitta (Melanitta)
Line 19: Line 18:
}}
}}


The '''velvet scoter''' ('''''Melanitta fusca'''''), also called a '''velvet duck''',<ref>Buczacki, Stefan (2005) ''Fauna Britannica'', Hamlyn, London.</ref> is a large [[Merginae|sea duck]], which breeds over the far north of [[Europe]] and the [[Palearctic]] west of the [[Yenisey]] basin. The genus name is derived from [[Ancient Greek]] ''melas'' "black" and ''netta'' "duck". The species name is from the [[Latin]] ''fuscus'' "dusky brown".
The '''velvet scoter''' ('''''Melanitta fusca''''') is a large [[Merginae|sea duck]], which breeds over the far north of [[Europe]] and the [[Palearctic]] west of the [[Yenisey]] basin. The genus name is derived from [[Ancient Greek]] ''melas'' "black" and ''netta'' "duck". The species name is from the [[Latin]] ''fuscus'' "dusky brown".


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
The velvet scoter was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Anas fusca''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=1 | edition=10th | page=123 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727028 }}</ref><ref name=mayr>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=494 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16109134 }}</ref> Linnaeus specified the [[type locality (biology)|type locality]] as European seas but restricted this to the Swedish coast in 1761.<ref name=mayr/><ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1761 | title=Fauna svecica, sistens animalia sveciae regni mammalia, aves amphibia, pisces, insecta, vermes | edition=2nd | location=Stockholmiae | publisher=Sumtu & Literis Direct. Laurentii Salvii | language=Latin | page=39 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32170508 }}</ref> The velvet scoter is now one of six species placed in the genus ''[[Melanitta]]'' that was introduced in 1822 by the German zoologist [[Friedrich Boie]].<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen | date=December 2024 | title=Screamers, ducks, geese & swans | work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1 | url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/waterfowl/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=15 June 2024 }}</ref> The genus name combines the [[Ancient Greek]] ''melas'' meaning "black" and ''netta'' meaning "duck".<ref>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher = Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 |page =[https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n246 246]}}</ref> The specific epithet ''fusca'' is from [[Latin]] ''fuscus'' meaning "dusky", "black" or "brown".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn= 978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=167 | url=https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n167/mode/1up }}</ref> The species is considered to be [[monotypic]]: no [[subspecies]] are recognised.<ref name=ioc/>
The velvet scoter was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' under the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Anas fusca''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=1 | edition=10th | page=123 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727028 }}</ref><ref name=mayr>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=494 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16109134 }}</ref> Linnaeus specified the [[type locality (biology)|type locality]] as European seas but restricted this to the Swedish coast in 1761.<ref name=mayr/><ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1761 | title=Fauna svecica, sistens animalia sveciae regni mammalia, aves amphibia, pisces, insecta, vermes | edition=2nd | location=Stockholmiae | publisher=Sumtu & Literis Direct. Laurentii Salvii | language=Latin | page=39 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32170508 }}</ref> The velvet scoter is now one of six species placed in the genus ''[[Melanitta]]'' that was introduced in 1822 by the German zoologist [[Friedrich Boie]].<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen | date=December 2023 | title=Screamers, ducks, geese & swans | work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1 | url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/waterfowl/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=15 June 2024 }}</ref> The genus name combines the [[Ancient Greek]] ''melas'' meaning "black" and ''netta'' meaning "duck". The specific epithet ''fusca'' is from [[Latin]] ''fuscus'' meaning "dusky", "black" or "brown".<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n246/mode/1up 246], [https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n167/mode/1up 167]}}</ref> The species is considered to be [[monotypic]]: no [[subspecies]] are recognised.<ref name=ioc/>


The velvet scooter was formerly considered to be [[conspecific]] with the [[white-winged scoter]] (''Melanitta deglandi'') of North America and [[Stejneger's scoter]] (''Melanitta stejnegeri'') of eastern Siberia and northwest Mongolia.<ref name=ioc/><ref name=hbw>{{ cite book | last=Carboneras | first=A. | year=1992 | chapter=Family Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans) | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | title=Handbook of the Birds of the World | volume=1: Ostrich to Ducks | location=Barcelona, Spain | publisher=Lynx Edicions | isbn=84-87334-10-5 | pages=536–628 [625] | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/623/mode/1up | chapter-url-access=registration }}</ref><ref name=bow/>
A small, isolated population nests in eastern [[Turkey]]. [[Stejneger's scoter]] and the [[white-winged scoter]] are sometimes considered [[conspecific]] with the velvet scoter, and its two constituent subspecies are then known as ''M. f. stejnegeri'' and ''M. f. deglandi''. Velvet, Stejneger's, and white-winged scoters, along with the [[surf scoter]], are placed in the subgenus ''Melanitta'', distinct from the subgenus ''Oidemia'' to which the [[black scoter]] and [[common scoter]] belong.

[[File:Melanitta fusca MWNH 1019.JPG|left|thumb|Eggs, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
[[File:Melanitta fusca MWNH 1019.JPG|right|thumb|upright=0.8| Eggs, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]]]
It [[bird migration|winters]] farther south in [[temperate]] zones, [[Europe]] as far south as [[Great Britain]], and on the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]. Small numbers reach [[France]] and northern [[Spain]]. It forms large [[Flock (birds)|flocks]] on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.


[[File:Velvet Scoter from the Crossley ID Guide Britain and Ireland.jpg|left|thumb|Composite image of velvet scoter]]
[[File:Velvet Scoter from the Crossley ID Guide Britain and Ireland.jpg|left|thumb|Composite image of velvet scoter]]
The lined [[bird nest|nest]] is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in [[woodland]] or [[tundra]], and typically contains 7–9 [[egg (biology)|egg]]s. This duck dives for [[crustacean]]s and [[mollusc]]s.


==Description==
It is characterised by its bulky shape and large bill. It is the largest scoter at 51–58&nbsp;cm. The male is all black, except for white around the eye and a white [[speculum feathers|speculum]]. It has a bulbous yellow bill with a black base. The females are brown [[bird]]s with two pale patches on each side of the head and white wing patches.
The velvet scoter is {{cvt|51|-|56|cm}} in length and has a wingspan of {{cvt|90|-|99|cm}}. It is a relatively large sea duck with a thick neck, a long broad bill and a pointed tail. The plumage of the male is glossy black with large white wing patches and small white patches behind the eye. The bill is partly orange. The female is similar to the male but lacks the gloss on the feathers and is duller and browner.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=644}}


==Distribution==
The velvet scoter is one of the species to which the ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' ([[AEWA]]) applies.
They breed in northern Europe, from Norway to the [[Yenisey|Yenisey River]] in central Siberia and also northeast [[Kazakhstan]]. It [[bird migration|winters]] farther south in [[temperate]] zones, [[Europe]] as far south as [[Great Britain]], and on the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]. Small numbers reach France and northern Spain. It forms large [[Flock (birds)|flocks]] on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together.<ref name=bow>{{cite web | last1=Carboneras | first1=C. | last2=Kirwan | first2=G.M. | last3= Sharpe | first3=C.J. | year=2020 | title=Velvet Scoter (''Melanitta fusca'') version 1.0 | editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=J. | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=A. | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=J. | editor4-last=Christie | editor4-first=D.A. | editor5-last=de Juana | editor5-first=E. | work=Birds of the World | location=Ithaca, NY, USA | publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology | url=https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.whwsco3.01 | access-date=15 June 2024 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>


⚫
[[Tabatskuri Lake|Lake Tabatskuri]] in the region of [[Samtskhe–Javakheti|Samtskhe-Javakheti]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], holds the last breeding population of velvet scoters in the Caucasus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research and conservation of the velvet scoter in Georgia |url=https://www.conservationleadershipprogramme.org/project/velvet-scoter-duck-georgia/ |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Conservation Leadership Programme |language=en-GB}}</ref> Studies into this population in 2017-2018 found 25-35 pairs at the lake, with substantially fewer nesting. Competition for nesting locations, predation on velvet scoters by gulls, and disturbance by fishing activities were identified as contributing factors to reproductivity rates that were considered as "poor".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research and conservation of the velvet scoter in Georgia |url=https://www.conservationleadershipprogramme.org/project/velvet-scoter-duck-georgia/ |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Conservation Leadership Programme |language=en-GB}}</ref>
== Occurrence in the Caucasus ==
⚫
[[Tabatskuri Lake|Lake Tabatskuri]] in the region of [[Samtskhe–Javakheti|Samtskhe-Javakheti]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], holds the last breeding population of velvet scoters in the Caucasus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research and conservation of the velvet scoter in Georgia |url=https://www.conservationleadershipprogramme.org/project/velvet-scoter-duck-georgia/ |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Conservation Leadership Programme |language=en-GB}}</ref> Studies into this population in 2017-2018 found 25-35 pairs at the lake, with substantially fewer nesting.


==Behaviour==
Competition for nesting locations, predation on velvet scoters by gulls, and disturbance by fishing activities were identified as contributing factors to reproductivity rates that were considered as "poor".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research and conservation of the velvet scoter in Georgia |url=https://www.conservationleadershipprogramme.org/project/velvet-scoter-duck-georgia/ |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Conservation Leadership Programme |language=en-GB}}</ref>
===Breeding===
The lined [[bird nest|nest]] is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in [[woodland]] or [[tundra]]. The nest is built by the female and is placed in thick vegetation and is well concealed. The clutch is typically 7–9 creamy white [[egg (biology)|egg]]s which measure {{cvt|72|x|48|mm}}. Beginning after the last egg is laid, they are incubated for 27-28 days by the female. The eggs are covered with down when the female is off the nest. The young are [[precocial]] and [[nidifugous]] and feed themselves. They are cared for by the female and become independent after 30-40 days. They first breed when aged two years.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|p=649}}


===Food and feeding===
Georgian conservationist and ornithologist, Nika Paposhvili, has led conservation efforts that have begun to ameliorate the factors hindering the scoters breeding success. A documentary film, [https://decouvrirlavie.com/mr-velvet-scoter/ "Mr. Velvet Scoter"], was released in May 2023 documenting the work and life of Nika Paposhvili.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Georgia |date=2023-06-08 |title=Mr. Velvet Scoter (მისტერ გარიელი) – The Story of a Long Lost Caucasian Treasure |url=https://georgiatoday.ge/mr-velvet-scoter-%e1%83%9b%e1%83%98%e1%83%a1%e1%83%a2%e1%83%94%e1%83%a0-%e1%83%92%e1%83%90%e1%83%a0%e1%83%98%e1%83%94%e1%83%9a%e1%83%98-the-story-of-a-long-lost-caucasian-treasure/ |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=Georgia Today |language=en-US}}</ref>
This duck dives for [[crustacean]]s and [[mollusc]]s.{{sfn|Cramp|1977|pp=646-647}}

==Conservation status==
The velvet scoter is listed as Vulnerable by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN).<ref name=iucn/> It is one of the species to which the ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' ([[AEWA]]) applies.<ref>{{ cite web | title=AEWA Agreement and Text Annexes | url=https://www.unep-aewa.org/sites/default/files/uploads/aewa_agreement_text_2023-2025_corrected%20version%20as%20of%2010%20August%202023_EN.pdf | publisher=Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird | date=10 August 2023 | access-date=15 June 2024 }}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*{{ cite book | editor1-last=Cramp | editor1-first=Stanley | editor1-link=Stanley Cramp | year=1977 | chapter=''Melanitta fusca'' Velvet scoter | title=Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic | volume=I: Ostrich to Ducks | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-857358-6 | pages=644-650 }}
{{refend}}


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 10:47, 15 June 2024

Velvet scoter
Male
Female
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Genus: Melanitta
Subgenus: Melanitta
Species:
M. fusca
Binomial name
Melanitta fusca
Range of M. fusca
  Breeding
  Non-breeding
Synonyms

Anas fusca Linnaeus, 1758

The velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca) is a large sea duck, which breeds over the far north of Europe and the Palearctic west of the Yenisey basin. The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek melas "black" and netta "duck". The species name is from the Latin fuscus "dusky brown".

Taxonomy

The velvet scoter was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Anas fusca.[2][3] Linnaeus specified the type locality as European seas but restricted this to the Swedish coast in 1761.[3][4] The velvet scoter is now one of six species placed in the genus Melanitta that was introduced in 1822 by the German zoologist Friedrich Boie.[5] The genus name combines the Ancient Greek melas meaning "black" and netta meaning "duck". The specific epithet fusca is from Latin fuscus meaning "dusky", "black" or "brown".[6] The species is considered to be monotypic: no subspecies are recognised.[5]

The velvet scooter was formerly considered to be conspecific with the white-winged scoter (Melanitta deglandi) of North America and Stejneger's scoter (Melanitta stejnegeri) of eastern Siberia and northwest Mongolia.[5][7][8]

Eggs, Collection Museum Wiesbaden
Composite image of velvet scoter

Description

The velvet scoter is 51–56 cm (20–22 in) in length and has a wingspan of 90–99 cm (35–39 in). It is a relatively large sea duck with a thick neck, a long broad bill and a pointed tail. The plumage of the male is glossy black with large white wing patches and small white patches behind the eye. The bill is partly orange. The female is similar to the male but lacks the gloss on the feathers and is duller and browner.[9]

Distribution

They breed in northern Europe, from Norway to the Yenisey River in central Siberia and also northeast Kazakhstan. It winters farther south in temperate zones, Europe as far south as Great Britain, and on the Black and Caspian Sea. Small numbers reach France and northern Spain. It forms large flocks on suitable coastal waters. These are tightly packed, and the birds tend to take off together.[8]

Lake Tabatskuri in the region of Samtskhe-Javakheti, Georgia, holds the last breeding population of velvet scoters in the Caucasus.[10] Studies into this population in 2017-2018 found 25-35 pairs at the lake, with substantially fewer nesting. Competition for nesting locations, predation on velvet scoters by gulls, and disturbance by fishing activities were identified as contributing factors to reproductivity rates that were considered as "poor".[11]

Behaviour

Breeding

The lined nest is built on the ground close to the sea, lakes or rivers, in woodland or tundra. The nest is built by the female and is placed in thick vegetation and is well concealed. The clutch is typically 7–9 creamy white eggs which measure 72 mm × 48 mm (2.8 in × 1.9 in). Beginning after the last egg is laid, they are incubated for 27-28 days by the female. The eggs are covered with down when the female is off the nest. The young are precocial and nidifugous and feed themselves. They are cared for by the female and become independent after 30-40 days. They first breed when aged two years.[12]

Food and feeding

This duck dives for crustaceans and molluscs.[13]

Conservation status

The velvet scoter is listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).[1] It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.[14]

References

  1. ^ a b BirdLife International (2020). "Melanitta fusca". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22724836A183801134. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22724836A183801134.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 123.
  3. ^ a b Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1979). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 494.
  4. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1761). Fauna svecica, sistens animalia sveciae regni mammalia, aves amphibia, pisces, insecta, vermes (in Latin) (2nd ed.). Stockholmiae: Sumtu & Literis Direct. Laurentii Salvii. p. 39.
  5. ^ a b c Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (December 2023). "Screamers, ducks, geese & swans". IOC World Bird List Version 14.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  6. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 246, 167. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  7. ^ Carboneras, A. (1992). "Family Anatidae (Ducks, Geese and Swans)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. pp. 536–628 [625]. ISBN 84-87334-10-5.
  8. ^ a b Carboneras, C.; Kirwan, G.M.; Sharpe, C.J. (2020). del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J.; Christie, D.A.; de Juana, E. (eds.). "Velvet Scoter (Melanitta fusca) version 1.0". Birds of the World. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  9. ^ Cramp 1977, p. 644.
  10. ^ "Research and conservation of the velvet scoter in Georgia". Conservation Leadership Programme. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  11. ^ "Research and conservation of the velvet scoter in Georgia". Conservation Leadership Programme. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  12. ^ Cramp 1977, p. 649.
  13. ^ Cramp 1977, pp. 646–647.
  14. ^ "AEWA Agreement and Text Annexes" (PDF). Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird. 10 August 2023. Retrieved 15 June 2024.

Sources

  • Cramp, Stanley, ed. (1977). "Melanitta fusca Velvet scoter". Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. I: Ostrich to Ducks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 644–650. ISBN 978-0-19-857358-6.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Melanitta fusca.
Wikispecies has information related to Melanitta fusca.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Velvet_scoter&oldid=1229187885"