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Coordinates: 44°24′N 110°42′W / 44.400°N 110.700°W / 44.400; -110.700 (Yellowstone Caldera)
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| photo_caption = The northeastern part of Yellowstone Caldera, with the [[Yellowstone River]] flowing through [[Hayden Valley]] and the caldera rim in the distance
| photo_caption = The northeastern part of Yellowstone Caldera, with the [[Yellowstone River]] flowing through [[Hayden Valley]] and the caldera rim in the distance
| location = [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[Wyoming]], United States
| location = [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[Wyoming]], United States
| elevation_ft = 9203 <ref>{{cite web|title=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory|url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/|author=USGS|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref>
| elevation_ft = 9203<ref>{{cite web|title=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory|url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref>
| elevation_ref =
| elevation_ref =
| prominence =
| prominence =
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| topo = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Yellowstone National Park
| topo = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Yellowstone National Park
| type = [[Caldera]]<ref name="GVP">{{cite gvp | vn = 325010 | name = Yellowstone| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref> and [[supervolcano]]
| type = [[Caldera]]<ref name="GVP">{{cite gvp | vn = 325010 | name = Yellowstone| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref> and [[supervolcano]]
| age = 2,100,000–70,000 years<ref name="USGSFS3024">{{cite report|first1=Jacob B. |last1=Lowenstern |first2=Robert L. |last2=Christiansen |first3=Robert B. |last3=Smith |first4=Lisa A. |last4=Morgan |first5=Henry |last5=Heasler |title=Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future?|id=Fact Sheet 2005–3024 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |date=May 10, 2005|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3024/}}</ref>
| age = 2,100,000–70,000 years<ref name="USGSFS3024">{{cite report|first1=Jacob B. |last1=Lowenstern |first2=Robert L. |last2=Christiansen |first3=Robert B. |last3=Smith |first4=Lisa A. |last4=Morgan |first5=Henry |last5=Heasler |title=Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future?|id=Fact Sheet 2005–3024 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |date=May 10, 2005|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3024/}}</ref>
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| easiest_route = [[Hiking|Hike]]/[[Automobile|auto]]/[[bus]]
| easiest_route = [[Hiking|Hike]]/[[Automobile|auto]]/[[bus]]
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==Volcanoes at Yellowstone==
==Volcanoes at Yellowstone==
[[Image:Yellowstone Major Calderas Map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas (U.S. National Park Service).]]
[[Image:Yellowstone Major Calderas Map.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas (U.S. National Park Service).]]
Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas created by large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 640,000 years ago. The calderas lie over the [[Yellowstone hotspot]] under the [[Yellowstone Plateau]] where light and hot [[magma]] (molten rock) from the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] rises toward the surface. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, and is responsible for the eastern half of [[Idaho]]'s [[Snake River Plain]], but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than the surrounding terrain and remains stationary while the [[North American Plate]] moves west-southwest over it.<ref>{{cite web| title = Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming—USGS| work = Cascade Volcano Observatory| publisher = [[United States Geological Survey]]| date = January 22, 2003| url = http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Yellowstone/description_yellowstone.html | access-date = December 30, 2008}}</ref>
Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas created by large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 640,000 years ago. The calderas lie over the [[Yellowstone hotspot]] under the [[Yellowstone Plateau]] where light and hot [[magma]] (molten rock) from the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] rises toward the surface. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, and is responsible for the eastern half of [[Idaho]]'s [[Snake River Plain]], but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than the surrounding terrain and remains stationary while the [[North American plate]] moves west-southwest over it.<ref>{{cite web| title = Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming—USGS| work = Cascade Volcano Observatory| publisher = United States Geological Survey| date = January 22, 2003| url = http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Yellowstone/description_yellowstone.html | access-date = December 30, 2008}}</ref>


Over the past 16.5 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of explosive eruptions and less violent [[flood basalt|floods of basaltic lava]]. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) from a once-mountainous region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perkins |first1=Michael E. |last2=Nash |first2=Barbara P. |title=Explosive silicic volcanism of the Yellowstone hotspot: The ash fall tuff record |journal=GSA Bulletin |date=March 1, 2002 |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=367–381 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0367:ESVOTY>2.0.CO;2|bibcode=2002GSAB..114..367P }}</ref> At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as [[Supervolcano|supereruptions]]. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied [[magma chamber]], forming a geographic depression called a caldera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=J. |last2=Milner |first2=D. |last3=Spinks |first3=K. |date=February 2005 |title=Calderas and caldera structures: a review |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–26 |bibcode=2005ESRv...69....1C |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004}}</ref>
Over the past 16.5 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of explosive eruptions and less violent [[flood basalt|floods of basaltic lava]]. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) from a once-mountainous region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perkins |first1=Michael E. |last2=Nash |first2=Barbara P. |title=Explosive silicic volcanism of the Yellowstone hotspot: The ash fall tuff record |journal=GSA Bulletin |date=March 1, 2002 |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=367–381 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0367:ESVOTY>2.0.CO;2|bibcode=2002GSAB..114..367P }}</ref> At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as [[Supervolcano|supereruptions]]. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied [[magma chamber]], forming a geographic depression called a caldera.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cole |first1=J. |last2=Milner |first2=D. |last3=Spinks |first3=K. |date=February 2005 |title=Calderas and caldera structures: a review |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=69 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–26 |bibcode=2005ESRv...69....1C |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004}}</ref>


The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near [[McDermitt, Nevada–Oregon]], although there are [[Pyroclastic rock|volcaniclastic]] piles and [[Fault (geology)#Ring fault|arcuate faults]] that define caldera complexes more than {{Convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} in diameter in the [[Carmacks Group]] of southwest-central [[Yukon]], Canada, which are interpreted to have been formed 70&nbsp;million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0997:YIYTLC>2.3.CO;2|title=Yellowstone in Yukon: The Late Cretaceous Carmacks Group|author1=Johnston, Stephen T. |author2=Wynne, P. Jane |author3=Francis, Don |author4=Hart, Craig J. R. |author5=Enkin, Randolph J. |author6=Engebretson, David C. |volume=24|issue=11|pages=997, 998|year=1996|bibcode = 1996Geo....24..997J|journal=Geology }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Yellowstone hotspot track|url=http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~manders/SRP_erupt.html|publisher=[[Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory]]|access-date=June 10, 2010}}</ref> Progressively younger volcanic units, most grouped in several overlapping [[volcanic field]]s, extend from the [[Nevada]]–[[Oregon]] border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such field, the [[Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field]] in southern [[Idaho]], was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30&nbsp;cm) {{convert|1000|mi|km}} away in northeastern [[Nebraska]] and killed large herds of [[rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]], camels, and other animals at [[Ashfall Fossil Beds]] State Historical Park. The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimates there are one or two major caldera-forming eruptions and a hundred or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many" steam eruptions per century.<ref>[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone_hazard_42.html Yellowstone Volcanic Hazards, USGS]. Volcanoes.usgs.gov (March 1, 2012). Retrieved on December 31, 2013.</ref>
The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near [[McDermitt, Nevada–Oregon]], although there are [[Pyroclastic rock|volcaniclastic]] piles and [[Fault (geology)#Ring fault|arcuate faults]] that define caldera complexes more than {{Convert|60|km|mi|abbr=on}} in diameter in the [[Carmacks Group]] of southwest-central [[Yukon]], Canada, which are interpreted to have been formed 70&nbsp;million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0997:YIYTLC>2.3.CO;2|title=Yellowstone in Yukon: The Late Cretaceous Carmacks Group|author1=Johnston, Stephen T. |author2=Wynne, P. Jane |author3=Francis, Don |author4=Hart, Craig J. R. |author5=Enkin, Randolph J. |author6=Engebretson, David C. |volume=24|issue=11|pages=997, 998|year=1996|bibcode = 1996Geo....24..997J|journal=Geology }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Yellowstone hotspot track|url=http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~manders/SRP_erupt.html|publisher=[[Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory]]|access-date=June 10, 2010}}</ref> Progressively younger volcanic units, most grouped in several overlapping [[volcanic field]]s, extend from the [[Nevada]]–[[Oregon]] border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such field, the [[Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field]] in southern [[Idaho]], was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30&nbsp;cm) {{convert|1000|mi|km}} away in northeastern [[Nebraska]] and killed large herds of [[rhinoceros]]es, camels, and other animals at [[Ashfall Fossil Beds]] State Historical Park. The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimates there are one or two major caldera-forming eruptions and a hundred or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many" steam eruptions per century.<ref>[http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone_hazard_42.html Yellowstone Volcanic Hazards, USGS]. Volcanoes.usgs.gov (March 1, 2012). Retrieved on December 31, 2013.</ref>


The loosely defined term "[[supervolcano]]" has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field that produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating the West Thumb of [[Yellowstone Lake]]<ref>West Thumb Lake is not to be confused with West Thumb Geyser Basin. The caldera created West Thumb Lake, and the underlying [[Yellowstone hotspot]] keeps West Thumb Geyser Basin active. See [http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/geology/publications/bul/1347/sec3.htm Fig. 22] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610222507/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/geology/publications/bul/1347/sec3.htm|date=June 10, 2013}}.</ref> 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 640,000 years ago, forming the [[Island Park Caldera]], the [[Henry's Fork Caldera]], and Yellowstone calderas, respectively.<ref>{{cite report|last1=Newhall |first1=Christopher G. |last2=Dzurisin |first2=Daniel |year=1988 |doi=10.3133/b1855 |title=Historical unrest at large calderas of the world|publisher=US Geological Survey|id=Bulletin 1855|doi-access=free |hdl=2027/osu.32435022084362 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The [[Island Park Caldera]] supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the [[Huckleberry Ridge Tuff]], was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the [[1980 Mount St. Helens eruption]]. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (640,000 years ago) and produced the [[Lava Creek Tuff]]. The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller [[Mesa Falls Tuff]], but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain–Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.<ref>This qualitative statement is easily verified by reviewing the Yellowstone area in Google Earth.</ref>
The loosely defined term "[[supervolcano]]" has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field that produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating the West Thumb of [[Yellowstone Lake]]<ref>West Thumb Lake is not to be confused with West Thumb Geyser Basin. The caldera created West Thumb Lake, and the underlying [[Yellowstone hotspot]] keeps West Thumb Geyser Basin active. See [http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/geology/publications/bul/1347/sec3.htm Fig. 22] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610222507/http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/geology/publications/bul/1347/sec3.htm|date=June 10, 2013}}.</ref> 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 640,000 years ago, forming the [[Island Park Caldera]], the [[Henry's Fork Caldera]], and Yellowstone calderas, respectively.<ref>{{cite report|last1=Newhall |first1=Christopher G. |last2=Dzurisin |first2=Daniel |year=1988 |doi=10.3133/b1855 |title=Historical unrest at large calderas of the world|publisher=United States Geological Survey|id=Bulletin 1855|doi-access=free |hdl=2027/osu.32435022084362 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The [[Island Park Caldera]] supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the [[Huckleberry Ridge Tuff]], was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the [[1980 Mount St. Helens eruption]]. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (640,000 years ago) and produced the [[Lava Creek Tuff]]. The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller [[Mesa Falls Tuff]], but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain–Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.<ref>This qualitative statement is easily verified by reviewing the Yellowstone area in Google Earth.</ref>


Non-explosive eruptions of [[lava]] and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bindeman |first1=Ilya N. |last2=Fu |first2=Bin |last3=Kita |first3=Noriko T. |last4=Valley |first4=John W. |title=Origin and Evolution of Silicic Magmatism at Yellowstone Based on Ion Microprobe Analysis of Isotopically Zoned Zircons |journal=Journal of Petrology |date=January 2008 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=163–193 |doi=10.1093/petrology/egm075|doi-access=free |citeseerx=10.1.1.583.1851 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Secrets of supervolcanoes|url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/bindeman/Supervolcanoes.pdf|work=University of Oregon}}</ref> The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone 174,000 years ago. Smaller [[steam explosion]]s occur as well. An explosion 13,800 years ago left a {{convert|5|km|abbr=on}} diameter [[volcanic crater|crater]] at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera).<ref>{{cite web| title = Introduction to hydrothermal (steam) explosions in Yellowstone| work = Yellowstone National Park| publisher = Yellowstone Net| url = http://www.yellowstone.net/hydrothermal.htm| access-date = December 31, 2008| archive-date = January 6, 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090106140637/http://www.yellowstone.net/hydrothermal.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name="USGSFS3024"/> Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous [[geothermal areas of Yellowstone|geothermal vents]] scattered throughout the region, including the famous [[Old Faithful Geyser]], plus recorded ground-swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
Non-explosive eruptions of [[lava]] and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bindeman |first1=Ilya N. |last2=Fu |first2=Bin |last3=Kita |first3=Noriko T. |last4=Valley |first4=John W. |title=Origin and Evolution of Silicic Magmatism at Yellowstone Based on Ion Microprobe Analysis of Isotopically Zoned Zircons |journal=Journal of Petrology |date=January 2008 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=163–193 |doi=10.1093/petrology/egm075|doi-access=free |citeseerx=10.1.1.583.1851 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Secrets of supervolcanoes|url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/bindeman/Supervolcanoes.pdf|publisher=University of Oregon}}</ref> The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone 174,000 years ago. Smaller [[steam explosion]]s occur as well. An explosion 13,800 years ago left a {{convert|5|km|abbr=on}} diameter [[volcanic crater|crater]] at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera).<ref>{{cite web| title = Introduction to hydrothermal (steam) explosions in Yellowstone| work = Yellowstone National Park| publisher = Yellowstone Net| url = http://www.yellowstone.net/hydrothermal.htm| access-date = December 31, 2008| archive-date = January 6, 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090106140637/http://www.yellowstone.net/hydrothermal.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref name="USGSFS3024"/> Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous [[geothermal areas of Yellowstone|geothermal vents]] scattered throughout the region, including the famous [[Old Faithful Geyser]], plus recorded ground-swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}


The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great [[mantle plume|plume]] of magma located below the caldera's surface. The magma in this plume contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great [[mantle plume|plume]] of magma located below the caldera's surface. The magma in this plume contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}
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According to analysis of [[Seismic wave|earthquake data]] in 2013, the magma chamber is {{convert|80|km|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}} wide. It also has {{convert|4000|km3|abbr=on}} underground volume, of which 6–8% is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is too low to allow for another supereruption.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature.2013.14036|title=Large magma reservoir gets bigger|year=2013|last1=Witze|first1=Alexandra|journal=Nature|s2cid=130449188}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html|title=USGS: Volcano Hazards Program – Yellowstone Volcano Observatory Featured Articles Archive|access-date=April 4, 2014|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093639/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/discovery-ancient-super-eruptions-suggests-yellowstone-hotspot-may-be-waning?qt-news_science_products=4#qt-news_science_products |title=Discovery of Ancient Super-eruptions Suggests the Yellowstone Hotspot May Be Waning (USGS Release Date: JUNE 29, 2020)|access-date=February 16, 2021}}</ref>
According to analysis of [[Seismic wave|earthquake data]] in 2013, the magma chamber is {{convert|80|km|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}} wide. It also has {{convert|4000|km3|abbr=on}} underground volume, of which 6–8% is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is too low to allow for another supereruption.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature.2013.14036|title=Large magma reservoir gets bigger|year=2013|last1=Witze|first1=Alexandra|journal=Nature|s2cid=130449188}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html|title=USGS: Volcano Hazards Program – Yellowstone Volcano Observatory Featured Articles Archive|access-date=April 4, 2014|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093639/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/discovery-ancient-super-eruptions-suggests-yellowstone-hotspot-may-be-waning?qt-news_science_products=4#qt-news_science_products |title=Discovery of Ancient Super-eruptions Suggests the Yellowstone Hotspot May Be Waning (USGS Release Date: JUNE 29, 2020)|access-date=February 16, 2021}}</ref>


In October 2017, research from [[Arizona State University]] indicated prior to Yellowstone's last supereruption, magma surged into the magma chamber in two large influxes. An analysis of crystals from Yellowstone's lava showed that prior to the last supereruption, the magma chamber underwent a rapid increase in temperature and change in composition. The analysis indicated that Yellowstone's magma reservoir can reach eruptive capacity and trigger a super-eruption within just decades, not centuries as volcanologists had originally thought.<ref name="may erupt sooner">{{cite web |author=Aceves |first=Ana |date=October 12, 2017 |title=Yellowstone Supervolcano May Erupt Sooner Than Anticipated |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/yellowstone-supervolcano-may-erupt-sooner-than-anticipated/ |access-date=March 12, 2021 |website=pbs.org |publisher=NOVA Next}}</ref><ref name="seek clues">{{cite web |author=Diebel |first=Matthew |date=October 16, 2017 |title=Scientists seek clues to what triggered past Yellowstone 'supervolcano' eruptions |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2017/10/12/yellowstone-supervolcano-research-finds-what-triggered-eruption/757337001/ |access-date=March 12, 2021 |publisher=USA Today}}</ref>
In October 2017, research from [[Arizona State University]] indicated prior to Yellowstone's last supereruption, magma surged into the magma chamber in two large influxes. An analysis of crystals from Yellowstone's lava showed that prior to the last supereruption, the magma chamber underwent a rapid increase in temperature and change in composition. The analysis indicated that Yellowstone's magma reservoir can reach eruptive capacity and trigger a super-eruption within just decades, not centuries as volcanologists had originally thought.<ref name="may erupt sooner">{{cite web |author=Aceves |first=Ana |date=October 12, 2017 |title=Yellowstone Supervolcano May Erupt Sooner Than Anticipated |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/yellowstone-supervolcano-may-erupt-sooner-than-anticipated/ |access-date=March 12, 2021 |publisher=PBS }}</ref><ref name="seek clues">{{cite web |author=Diebel |first=Matthew |date=October 16, 2017 |title=Scientists seek clues to what triggered past Yellowstone 'supervolcano' eruptions |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2017/10/12/yellowstone-supervolcano-research-finds-what-triggered-eruption/757337001/ |access-date=March 12, 2021 |work=USA Today}}</ref>


===IUGS geological heritage site===
===IUGS geological heritage site===
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{{Main|Yellowstone hotspot}}
{{Main|Yellowstone hotspot}}


The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the [[lithosphere]] and [[upper mantle (Earth)|upper mantle]] [[mantle convection|convection]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Foulger|first=Gillian|author-link=Gillian Foulger|title=Yellowstone|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/Yellowstone.html|date=February 8, 2006|publisher = MantlePlumes.org|access-date=February 10, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christiansen |first1=Robert L. |last2=Foulger |first2=G. R. |last3=Evans |first3=John R. |year=2002 |title=Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=114 |issue=10 |pages=1245–1256 |bibcode=2002GSAB..114.1245C |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1245:UMOOTY>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle ([[mantle plume]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Columbia River Basalts |url=https://www.mantleplumes.org/CRB.html |access-date=April 15, 2024 |website=www.mantleplumes.org}}</ref> Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the [[Columbia River Basalt Group|Columbia Basalt flows]] appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, prompting speculation that they share a common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided.<ref>{{cite web|last= Ivanov|first= Alexei V.|title= The Columbia River Flood Basalts: Consequence of subduction-related processes|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/Yellowstone.html|date=February 7, 2007|publisher=MantlePlumes.org|access-date= December 31, 2008}}</ref>
The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the [[lithosphere]] and [[upper mantle (Earth)|upper mantle]] [[mantle convection|convection]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Foulger|first=Gillian|author-link=Gillian Foulger|title=Yellowstone|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/Yellowstone.html|date=February 8, 2006|publisher = MantlePlumes.org|access-date=February 10, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Christiansen |first1=Robert L. |last2=Foulger |first2=G. R. |last3=Evans |first3=John R. |year=2002 |title=Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=114 |issue=10 |pages=1245–1256 |bibcode=2002GSAB..114.1245C |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1245:UMOOTY>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle ([[mantle plume]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Columbia River Basalts |url=https://www.mantleplumes.org/CRB.html |access-date=April 15, 2024 |website=mantleplumes.org}}</ref> Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the [[Columbia River Basalt Group|Columbia Basalt flows]] appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, prompting speculation that they share a common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided.<ref>{{cite web|last= Ivanov|first= Alexei V.|title= The Columbia River Flood Basalts: Consequence of subduction-related processes|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/Yellowstone.html|date=February 7, 2007|publisher=MantlePlumes.org|access-date= December 31, 2008}}</ref>


An alternate theory to the [[Mantle plume|mantle plume model]] was proposed in 2018. It is suggested that the volcanism may be caused by upwellings from the [[Mantle (geology)#Structure|lower mantle]] resulting from water-rich fragments of the [[Farallon Plate]] descending from the [[Cascadia subduction zone|Cascadia subduction region]], sheared off at a subducted spreading rift.<ref name=zhou>{{citation|title=Anomalous mantle transition zone beneath the Yellowstone hotspot track| author-last=Zhou| author-first=Ying| journal=Nature| volume=11| issue=6| pages=449–453| date=2018| doi=10.1038/s41561-018-0126-4| bibcode=2018NatGe..11..449Z| s2cid=134251160}}</ref>
An alternate theory to the [[Mantle plume|mantle plume model]] was proposed in 2018. It is suggested that the volcanism may be caused by upwellings from the [[Mantle (geology)#Structure|lower mantle]] resulting from water-rich fragments of the [[Farallon plate]] descending from the [[Cascadia subduction zone|Cascadia subduction region]], sheared off at a subducted spreading rift.<ref name=zhou>{{citation|title=Anomalous mantle transition zone beneath the Yellowstone hotspot track| author-last=Zhou| author-first=Ying| journal=Nature| volume=11| issue=6| pages=449–453| date=2018| doi=10.1038/s41561-018-0126-4| bibcode=2018NatGe..11..449Z| s2cid=134251160}}</ref>


Others suggest that the mantle plume could not have been a dominant force in Yellowstone volcanism due to the sinking Farallon plate, as it acts as a buffer that breaks apart the plume. Any heat from the plume that does make it to the surface is limited.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leonard |first1=Tiffany |last2=Liu |first2=Lijun |date=February 16, 2016 |title=The role of a mantle plume in the formation of Yellowstone volcanism |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=1132–1139 |doi=10.1002/2015GL067131 |bibcode=2016GeoRL..43.1132L |s2cid=130205027 |issn=0094-8276|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kincaid |first1=C. |last2=Druken |first2=K. A. |last3=Griffiths |first3=R. W. |last4=Stegman |first4=D. R. |date=April 7, 2013 |title=Bifurcation of the Yellowstone plume driven by subduction-induced mantle flow |url=https://rdcu.be/dn4oB |journal=Nature Geoscience |language=en |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=395–399 |doi=10.1038/ngeo1774 |bibcode=2013NatGe...6..395K |issn=1752-0894|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Others suggest that the mantle plume could not have been a dominant force in Yellowstone volcanism due to the sinking Farallon plate, as it acts as a buffer that breaks apart the plume. Any heat from the plume that does make it to the surface is limited.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leonard |first1=Tiffany |last2=Liu |first2=Lijun |date=February 16, 2016 |title=The role of a mantle plume in the formation of Yellowstone volcanism |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=1132–1139 |doi=10.1002/2015GL067131 |bibcode=2016GeoRL..43.1132L |s2cid=130205027 |issn=0094-8276|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kincaid |first1=C. |last2=Druken |first2=K. A. |last3=Griffiths |first3=R. W. |last4=Stegman |first4=D. R. |date=April 7, 2013 |title=Bifurcation of the Yellowstone plume driven by subduction-induced mantle flow |url=https://rdcu.be/dn4oB |journal=Nature Geoscience |language=en |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=395–399 |doi=10.1038/ngeo1774 |bibcode=2013NatGe...6..395K |issn=1752-0894|url-access=subscription }}</ref>


==Hazards==
==Hazards==
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Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable [[earthquake]]s annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an [[earthquake swarm]]. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or [[hydrothermal]] fluids.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/publications/2004/apr04swarm.php|title=Yellowstone Earthquake Swarms|publisher=[[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]]|access-date=January 1, 2009}}</ref><ref name="volcanoes.usgs.gov">{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/activity/archiveupdate.php?noticeid=5199|title=January 2010 Yellowstone Seismicity Summary|access-date=February 1, 2010}}</ref>
Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable [[earthquake]]s annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an [[earthquake swarm]]. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or [[hydrothermal]] fluids.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/publications/2004/apr04swarm.php|title=Yellowstone Earthquake Swarms|publisher=[[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]]|access-date=January 1, 2009}}</ref><ref name="volcanoes.usgs.gov">{{cite web|url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/activity/archiveupdate.php?noticeid=5199|title=January 2010 Yellowstone Seismicity Summary|access-date=February 1, 2010}}</ref>


In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 earthquakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/|title=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory|website=volcanoes.usgs.gov|access-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seis.utah.edu/helicorder/heli/yellowstone/Uuss.LKWY_SHZ_US.2008123100.gif|title=UUSS Webicorder (Seismogram) at Lake for December 31, 2008|access-date=January 1, 2009}}</ref> Another swarm started in January 2010, after the [[2010 Haiti earthquake|Haiti earthquake]] and before the [[2010 Chile earthquake|Chile earthquake]]. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second-largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010.<ref name="volcanoes.usgs.gov"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/01/science/01yellowstone.html?partner=rss&emc=rss|title=Hundreds of Quakes Are Rattling Yellowstone|access-date=January 23, 2014 | work=The New York Times | first=Kirk | last=Johnson | date=January 31, 2010}}</ref> This swarm subsided to background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM [[Mountain Standard Time|MST]], a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zuckerman|first=Laura|title=Yellowstone National Park rattled by largest earthquake in 34 years|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-earthquake-yellowstone-idUSBREA2U01920140331|work=Reuters|access-date=March 31, 2014}}<br/>{{cite news |last=Gedeon |first=Jacqueline |date=March 31, 2014 |title=4.8 magnitude earthquake hits Yellowstone National Park |url=http://nbcmontana.com/news/local/4-8-magnitude-earthquake-hits-yellowstone-national-park |work=KECI |location=Montana |access-date=April 4, 2018 }}</ref> In February 2018, more than 300 earthquakes occurred, with the largest being a magnitude 2.9.<ref>{{cite news |last=Zachos |first=Elaina |date=February 21, 2018 |title=Earthquake Swarms Are Shaking Yellowstone's Supervolcano. Here's What That Means. |url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/02/yellowstone-national-park-supervolcano-earthquake-swarms-spd/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222033956/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/02/yellowstone-national-park-supervolcano-earthquake-swarms-spd/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 22, 2018 |work=National Geographic |access-date=April 4, 2018 }}<br/>{{cite magazine |last=Bartels |first=Meghan |date=February 20, 2018 |title=Yellowstone Supervolcano Earthquake Swarm Hits 200 Shakes In Less Than Two Weeks |url=http://www.newsweek.com/yellowstone-supervolcano-earthquake-swarm-hits-200-shakes-less-two-weeks-812813 |magazine=Newsweek |access-date=April 4, 2018 }}</ref>
In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 earthquakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/|title=Yellowstone Volcano Observatory|publisher=United States Geological Survey|access-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seis.utah.edu/helicorder/heli/yellowstone/Uuss.LKWY_SHZ_US.2008123100.gif|title=UUSS Webicorder (Seismogram) at Lake for December 31, 2008|access-date=January 1, 2009}}</ref> Another swarm started in January 2010, after the [[2010 Haiti earthquake|Haiti earthquake]] and before the [[2010 Chile earthquake|Chile earthquake]]. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second-largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010.<ref name="volcanoes.usgs.gov"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/01/science/01yellowstone.html?partner=rss&emc=rss|title=Hundreds of Quakes Are Rattling Yellowstone|access-date=January 23, 2014 | work=The New York Times | first=Kirk | last=Johnson | date=January 31, 2010}}</ref> This swarm subsided to background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM [[Mountain Standard Time|MST]], a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zuckerman|first=Laura|title=Yellowstone National Park rattled by largest earthquake in 34 years|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-earthquake-yellowstone-idUSBREA2U01920140331|agency=Reuters|access-date=March 31, 2014}}<br/>{{cite news |last=Gedeon |first=Jacqueline |date=March 31, 2014 |title=4.8 magnitude earthquake hits Yellowstone National Park |url=http://nbcmontana.com/news/local/4-8-magnitude-earthquake-hits-yellowstone-national-park |work=KECI |location=Montana |access-date=April 4, 2018 }}</ref> In February 2018, more than 300 earthquakes occurred, with the largest being a magnitude 2.9.<ref>{{cite news |last=Zachos |first=Elaina |date=February 21, 2018 |title=Earthquake Swarms Are Shaking Yellowstone's Supervolcano. Here's What That Means. |url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/02/yellowstone-national-park-supervolcano-earthquake-swarms-spd/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180222033956/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/02/yellowstone-national-park-supervolcano-earthquake-swarms-spd/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 22, 2018 |work=National Geographic |access-date=April 4, 2018 }}<br/>{{cite magazine |last=Bartels |first=Meghan |date=February 20, 2018 |title=Yellowstone Supervolcano Earthquake Swarm Hits 200 Shakes in Less Than Two Weeks |url=http://www.newsweek.com/yellowstone-supervolcano-earthquake-swarm-hits-200-shakes-less-two-weeks-812813 |magazine=Newsweek |access-date=April 4, 2018 }}</ref>


===Volcanoes===
===Volcanoes===
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The Lava Creek eruption of the Yellowstone Caldera, which occurred 640,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite web| title = Undine Falls, Lava Creek, Yellowstone National Park| publisher = United States Geological Survey| url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/images/20010519-082_caption.html| access-date = January 2, 2009}}</ref> ejected approximately {{convert|1000|km3|mi3}} of rock, dust and [[volcanic ash]] into the atmosphere.<ref name="USGSFS3024"/> It was Yellowstone's third and most recent caldera-forming eruption.
The Lava Creek eruption of the Yellowstone Caldera, which occurred 640,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite web| title = Undine Falls, Lava Creek, Yellowstone National Park| publisher = United States Geological Survey| url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/images/20010519-082_caption.html| access-date = January 2, 2009}}</ref> ejected approximately {{convert|1000|km3|mi3}} of rock, dust and [[volcanic ash]] into the atmosphere.<ref name="USGSFS3024"/> It was Yellowstone's third and most recent caldera-forming eruption.


Geologists closely monitor the elevation of the [[Yellowstone Plateau]], which has been rising as quickly as {{convert|150|mm|in}} per year, as an indirect measurement of changes in magma chamber pressure.<ref>{{cite web |author=Timmer |first=John |date=November 8, 2007 |title=Yellowstone recharges |url=https://arstechnica.com/journals/science.ars/2007/11/08/yellowstone-recharges |access-date=November 8, 2007 |work=arstechnica.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |last1=Smith |first1=Robert B. |first2=Wu-Lung |last2=Chang |first3=Lee |last3=Siegel |title=Yellowstone rising: Volcano inflating with molten rock at record rate |work=University of Utah Public Relations |publisher=EurekAlert! (American Association for the Advancement of Science) |date=November 8, 2007 |url=http://eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-11/uou-yr103007.php|url-access=<!--WP:URLACCESS--> }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=W.-L. |last2=Smith |first2=R. B. |last3=Wicks |first3=C. |last4=Farrell |first4=J. M. |last5=Puskas |first5=C. M. |title=Accelerated Uplift and Magmatic Intrusion of the Yellowstone Caldera, 2004 to 2006 |journal=Science |date=November 9, 2007 |volume=318 |issue=5852 |pages=952–956 |doi=10.1126/science.1146842|pmid=17991858 |bibcode=2007Sci...318..952C |s2cid=22478071 }}</ref>
Geologists closely monitor the elevation of the [[Yellowstone Plateau]], which has been rising as quickly as {{convert|150|mm|in}} per year, as an indirect measurement of changes in magma chamber pressure.<ref>{{cite web |author=Timmer |first=John |date=November 8, 2007 |title=Yellowstone recharges |url=https://arstechnica.com/journals/science.ars/2007/11/08/yellowstone-recharges |access-date=November 8, 2007 |work=arstechnica.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |last1=Smith |first1=Robert B. |first2=Wu-Lung |last2=Chang |first3=Lee |last3=Siegel |title=Yellowstone rising: Volcano inflating with molten rock at record rate |publisher=University of Utah Public Relations |via=EurekAlert! (American Association for the Advancement of Science) |date=November 8, 2007 |url=http://eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-11/uou-yr103007.php|url-access=<!--WP:URLACCESS--> }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=W.-L. |last2=Smith |first2=R. B. |last3=Wicks |first3=C. |last4=Farrell |first4=J. M. |last5=Puskas |first5=C. M. |title=Accelerated Uplift and Magmatic Intrusion of the Yellowstone Caldera, 2004 to 2006 |journal=Science |date=November 9, 2007 |volume=318 |issue=5852 |pages=952–956 |doi=10.1126/science.1146842|pmid=17991858 |bibcode=2007Sci...318..952C |s2cid=22478071 }}</ref>


The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008—almost {{convert|75|mm|in}} each year—was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Molten Rock Fills Yellowstone Volcano at Record Rate |url=https://www.newswise.com/articles/molten-rock-fills-yellowstone-volcano-at-record-rate |access-date=April 15, 2024 |website=www.newswise.com |language=en}}</ref> From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as {{convert|8|in|cm}} at the White Lake GPS station.<ref>{{cite web| title = Recent ups and downs of the Yellowstone Caldera | work = [[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]] | publisher = United States Geological Survey | date = September 28, 2008 | url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/publications/2007/upsanddowns.php | access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Robert B. |last2=Jordan |first2=Michael |last3=Steinberger |first3=Bernhard |last4=Puskas |first4=Christine M. |last5=Farrell |first5=Jamie |last6=Waite |first6=Gregory P. |last7=Husen |first7=Stephan |last8=Chang |first8=Wu-Lung |last9=O'Connell |first9=Richard |date=November 20, 2009 |title=Geodynamics of the Yellowstone hotspot and mantle plume: Seismic and GPS imaging, kinematics and mantle flow |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=188 |issue=1–3 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.020 |url=http://www.uusatrg.utah.edu/PAPERS/smith_jvgr2009complete.pdf |bibcode=2009JVGR..188...26S }}</ref> In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly"<ref>[http://volcano.wr.usgs.gov/yvostatus.php Current Alerts for U.S. Volcanoes]. volcano.wr.usgs.gov</ref> and that uplift continues but at a slower pace.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090405033306/http://pboweb.unavco.org/shared/scripts/stations/?checkkey=WLWY&sec=timeseries_plots&timeseries=raw GPS Station: WLWY – Data Products – Time Series Plots]. unavco.org</ref> USGS, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the [[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]] maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable."<ref name="USGSFS3024"/> This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought". The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating:
The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008—almost {{convert|75|mm|in}} each year—was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Molten Rock Fills Yellowstone Volcano at Record Rate |url=https://www.newswise.com/articles/molten-rock-fills-yellowstone-volcano-at-record-rate |access-date=April 15, 2024 |website=newswise.com |language=en}}</ref> From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as {{convert|8|in|cm}} at the White Lake GPS station.<ref>{{cite web| title = Recent ups and downs of the Yellowstone Caldera | work = [[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]] | publisher = United States Geological Survey | date = September 28, 2008 | url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/publications/2007/upsanddowns.php | access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Robert B. |last2=Jordan |first2=Michael |last3=Steinberger |first3=Bernhard |last4=Puskas |first4=Christine M. |last5=Farrell |first5=Jamie |last6=Waite |first6=Gregory P. |last7=Husen |first7=Stephan |last8=Chang |first8=Wu-Lung |last9=O'Connell |first9=Richard |date=November 20, 2009 |title=Geodynamics of the Yellowstone hotspot and mantle plume: Seismic and GPS imaging, kinematics and mantle flow |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=188 |issue=1–3 |pages=26–56 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.08.020 |url=http://www.uusatrg.utah.edu/PAPERS/smith_jvgr2009complete.pdf |bibcode=2009JVGR..188...26S }}</ref> In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly"<ref>[http://volcano.wr.usgs.gov/yvostatus.php Current Alerts for U.S. Volcanoes]. volcano.wr.usgs.gov</ref> and that uplift continues but at a slower pace.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090405033306/http://pboweb.unavco.org/shared/scripts/stations/?checkkey=WLWY&sec=timeseries_plots&timeseries=raw GPS Station: WLWY – Data Products – Time Series Plots]. unavco.org</ref> USGS, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the [[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]] maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable."<ref name="USGSFS3024"/> This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought". The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating:
<blockquote>
<blockquote>
Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a 'supereruption' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not 'overdue' for a supereruption.<ref>{{cite press release |date= December 19, 2013 |title= Monitoring Upgrades Result in New Insight Into Yellowstone's Magma System |url= http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html |publisher= [[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]] (USGS) |access-date= January 2, 2014 |archive-date= March 4, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093639/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html |url-status= dead |url-access= <!--WP:URLACCESS--> }}</ref>
Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a 'supereruption' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not 'overdue' for a supereruption.<ref>{{cite press release |date= December 19, 2013 |title= Monitoring Upgrades Result in New Insight into Yellowstone's Magma System |url= http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html |publisher= [[Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]] (USGS) |access-date= January 2, 2014 |archive-date= March 4, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093639/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_news_archive.html |url-status= dead |url-access= <!--WP:URLACCESS--> }}</ref>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>
Media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.<ref>{{cite web |last=Burnett |first=Jim |date=January 1, 2014 |title= Reactions To Yellowstone Supervolcano Study Ranged From Hysteria To Ho-Hum |url=http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2014/01/reactions-yellowstone-supervolcano-study-ranged-hysteria-ho-hum24449 |website=National Parks Traveller |access-date=January 2, 2014 }}</ref>
Media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.<ref>{{cite web |last=Burnett |first=Jim |date=January 1, 2014 |title= Reactions To Yellowstone Supervolcano Study Ranged From Hysteria To Ho-Hum |url=http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2014/01/reactions-yellowstone-supervolcano-study-ranged-hysteria-ho-hum24449 |website=National Parks Traveller |access-date=January 2, 2014 }}</ref>
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A study published in ''GSA Today'', the monthly news and science magazine of the [[Geological Society of America]], identified three fault zones where future eruptions are most likely to be centered.<ref name="NG">{{cite magazine |author=Lovett |first=Richard A. |date=September 20, 2012 |title=Yellowstone Supervolcano Discovery—Where Will It Erupt? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/120920-yellowstone-supervolcano-prediction-volcanoes-science-environment |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628130602/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/120920-yellowstone-supervolcano-prediction-volcanoes-science-environment |archive-date=June 28, 2021 |magazine=National Geographic}}</ref> Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000–70,000 years ago, and the third is a focus of present-day [[seismicity]].<ref name=NG />
A study published in ''GSA Today'', the monthly news and science magazine of the [[Geological Society of America]], identified three fault zones where future eruptions are most likely to be centered.<ref name="NG">{{cite magazine |author=Lovett |first=Richard A. |date=September 20, 2012 |title=Yellowstone Supervolcano Discovery—Where Will It Erupt? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/120920-yellowstone-supervolcano-prediction-volcanoes-science-environment |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628130602/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/120920-yellowstone-supervolcano-prediction-volcanoes-science-environment |archive-date=June 28, 2021 |magazine=National Geographic}}</ref> Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000–70,000 years ago, and the third is a focus of present-day [[seismicity]].<ref name=NG />


In 2017, [[NASA]] conducted a study to determine the feasibility of preventing the volcano from erupting. The results suggested that cooling the magma chamber by 35 percent would be enough to forestall such an incident. NASA proposed introducing water at high pressure 10 kilometers underground. The circulating water would release heat at the surface, possibly in a way that could be used as a [[geothermal power]] source. If enacted, the plan would cost about $3.46 billion. Brian Wilcox of the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] observes that such a project could incidentally trigger an eruption if the top of the chamber is drilled into.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170817-nasas-ambitious-plan-to-save-earth-from-a-supervolcano|title=Nasa's ambitious plan to save Earth from a supervolcano|first=David|last=Cox|website=www.bbc.com|access-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/no-nasa-isnt-going-to-drill-to-stop-yellowstone-from-erupting|title=No, NASA Isn't Going to Drill to Stop Yellowstone from Erupting|website=Discover Magazine|access-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref>
In 2017, [[NASA]] conducted a study to determine the feasibility of preventing the volcano from erupting. The results suggested that cooling the magma chamber by 35 percent would be enough to forestall such an incident. NASA proposed introducing water at high pressure 10 kilometers underground. The circulating water would release heat at the surface, possibly in a way that could be used as a [[geothermal power]] source. If enacted, the plan would cost about $3.46 billion. Brian Wilcox of the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] observes that such a project could incidentally trigger an eruption if the top of the chamber is drilled into.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170817-nasas-ambitious-plan-to-save-earth-from-a-supervolcano|title=Nasa's ambitious plan to save Earth from a supervolcano|first=David|last=Cox|publisher=BBC|access-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/no-nasa-isnt-going-to-drill-to-stop-yellowstone-from-erupting|title=No, NASA Isn't Going to Drill to Stop Yellowstone from Erupting|website=Discover Magazine|access-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref>


===Hydrothermal explosions===
===Hydrothermal explosions===
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[[Image:HotspotsSRP update2013.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|Path of the Yellowstone hotspot over the past 16 million years]]
[[Image:HotspotsSRP update2013.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|Path of the Yellowstone hotspot over the past 16 million years]]


Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity.{{cn|date=September 2021}} Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, [[Turbid Lake]], and Indian Pond, which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.{{cn|date=September 2021}}
Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}} Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, [[Turbid Lake]], and Indian Pond, which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}


In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than {{convert|77|Mcuft|m3 gal|abbr=}} of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.<ref>{{cite web| title = Frequently asked questions about recent findings at Yellowstone Lake| work = Yellowstone Volcano Observatory| publisher = [[United States Geological Survey]]| date = September 11, 2008| url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/publications/2003/LakeQA.php| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title = Tsunami linked to Yellowstone crater| newspaper = [[USA Today]]| date = January 14, 2008| url = https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2008-01-14-tsunami-yellowstone_N.htm| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref>
In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than {{convert|77|Mcuft|m3 gal|abbr=}} of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.<ref>{{cite web| title = Frequently asked questions about recent findings at Yellowstone Lake| work = Yellowstone Volcano Observatory| publisher = United States Geological Survey| date = September 11, 2008| url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/publications/2003/LakeQA.php| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title = Tsunami linked to Yellowstone crater| newspaper = [[USA Today]]| date = January 14, 2008| url = https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2008-01-14-tsunami-yellowstone_N.htm| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref>


Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude [[1992 Landers earthquake|Landers earthquake]] in [[California]]'s [[Mojave Desert]] that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than {{convert|800|mi|km}} away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude [[2002 Denali earthquake|Denali fault earthquake]] {{convert|2000|mi|km}} away in [[Alaska]] that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.<ref>{{cite news| title = Quake in Alaska Changed Yellowstone Geysers| publisher = [[University of Utah]]| date = May 27, 2004| url = http://unews.utah.edu/p/?r=030306-10| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref>
Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude [[1992 Landers earthquake|Landers earthquake]] in [[California]]'s [[Mojave Desert]] that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than {{convert|800|mi|km}} away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude [[2002 Denali earthquake|Denali fault earthquake]] {{convert|2000|mi|km}} away in [[Alaska]] that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.<ref>{{cite news| title = Quake in Alaska Changed Yellowstone Geysers| publisher = [[University of Utah]]| date = May 27, 2004| url = http://unews.utah.edu/p/?r=030306-10| access-date = December 31, 2008}}</ref>
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==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Reflist}}


==Further reading==
==Further reading==
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==External links==
==External links==
*{{commonscat-inline|Yellowstone Caldera}}
*{{commons category-inline|Yellowstone Caldera}}
* [http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/oldroot/volcanoes/volc_images/north_america/yellowstone.html The Snake River Plain and the Yellowstone Hot Spot]
* [http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/oldroot/volcanoes/volc_images/north_america/yellowstone.html The Snake River Plain and the Yellowstone Hot Spot]
* [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/ Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]
* [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/ Yellowstone Volcano Observatory]

Revision as of 01:02, 13 November 2024

Yellowstone Caldera
The northeastern part of Yellowstone Caldera, with the Yellowstone River flowing through Hayden Valley and the caldera rim in the distance
Highest point
Elevation9,203[1] ft (2,805 m)
Coordinates44°24′N 110°42′W / 44.400°N 110.700°W / 44.400; -110.700 (Yellowstone Caldera)
Geography
Map
LocationYellowstone National Park, Wyoming, United States
Parent rangeRocky Mountains
Topo mapUSGS Yellowstone National Park
Geology
Rock age2,100,000–70,000 years[3]
Mountain type(s)Caldera[2] and supervolcano
Volcanic fieldYellowstone Plateau
Last eruptionApproximately 640,000 years ago (caldera-forming); 70,000 years ago (in the caldera)
Climbing
Easiest routeHike/auto/bus

The Yellowstone Caldera, sometimes referred to as the Yellowstone Supervolcano, is a volcanic caldera and supervolcano in Yellowstone National Park in the Western United States. The caldera and most of the park are located in the northwest corner of the state of Wyoming. The caldera measures 43 by 28 miles (70 by 45 kilometers), and postcaldera lavas spill out a significant distance beyond the caldera proper.[4]

The caldera formed during the last of three supereruptions over the past 2.1 million years: the Huckleberry Ridge eruption 2.1 million years ago (which created the Island Park Caldera and the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff), the Mesa Falls eruption 1.3 million years ago (which created the Henry's Fork Caldera and the Mesa Falls Tuff), and the Lava Creek eruption approximately 640,000 years ago (which created the Yellowstone Caldera and the Lava Creek Tuff).[5]

The caldera was the largest known until the discovery of Apolaki Caldera in 2019, which is more than twice as wide.[6]

Volcanoes at Yellowstone

Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas (U.S. National Park Service).

Volcanism at Yellowstone is relatively recent, with calderas created by large eruptions that took place 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and 640,000 years ago. The calderas lie over the Yellowstone hotspot under the Yellowstone Plateau where light and hot magma (molten rock) from the mantle rises toward the surface. The hotspot appears to move across terrain in the east-northeast direction, and is responsible for the eastern half of Idaho's Snake River Plain, but in fact the hotspot is much deeper than the surrounding terrain and remains stationary while the North American plate moves west-southwest over it.[7]

Over the past 16.5 million years or so, this hotspot has generated a succession of explosive eruptions and less violent floods of basaltic lava. Together these eruptions have helped create the eastern part of the Snake River Plain (to the west of Yellowstone) from a once-mountainous region.[8] At least a dozen of these eruptions were so massive that they are classified as supereruptions. Volcanic eruptions sometimes empty their stores of magma so swiftly that the overlying land collapses into the emptied magma chamber, forming a geographic depression called a caldera.[9]

The oldest identified caldera remnant straddles the border near McDermitt, Nevada–Oregon, although there are volcaniclastic piles and arcuate faults that define caldera complexes more than 60 km (37 mi) in diameter in the Carmacks Group of southwest-central Yukon, Canada, which are interpreted to have been formed 70 million years ago by the Yellowstone hotspot.[10][11] Progressively younger volcanic units, most grouped in several overlapping volcanic fields, extend from the NevadaOregon border through the eastern Snake River Plain and terminate in the Yellowstone Plateau. One such field, the Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field in southern Idaho, was formed between 10 and 12 million years ago, and the event dropped ash to a depth of one foot (30 cm) 1,000 miles (1,600 km) away in northeastern Nebraska and killed large herds of rhinoceroses, camels, and other animals at Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimates there are one or two major caldera-forming eruptions and a hundred or so lava extruding eruptions per million years, and "several to many" steam eruptions per century.[12]

The loosely defined term "supervolcano" has been used to describe volcanic fields that produce exceptionally large volcanic eruptions. Thus defined, the Yellowstone Supervolcano is the volcanic field that produced the latest three supereruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot; it also produced one additional smaller eruption, thereby creating the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake[13] 174,000 years ago. The three supereruptions occurred 2.1 million, 1.3 million, and approximately 640,000 years ago, forming the Island Park Caldera, the Henry's Fork Caldera, and Yellowstone calderas, respectively.[14] The Island Park Caldera supereruption (2.1 million years ago), which produced the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff, was the largest, and produced 2,500 times as much ash as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The next biggest supereruption formed the Yellowstone Caldera (640,000 years ago) and produced the Lava Creek Tuff. The Henry's Fork Caldera (1.2 million years ago) produced the smaller Mesa Falls Tuff, but is the only caldera from the Snake River Plain–Yellowstone hotspot that is plainly visible today.[15]

Non-explosive eruptions of lava and less-violent explosive eruptions have occurred in and near the Yellowstone caldera since the last supereruption.[16][17] The most recent lava flow occurred about 70,000 years ago, while a violent eruption excavated the West Thumb of Lake Yellowstone 174,000 years ago. Smaller steam explosions occur as well. An explosion 13,800 years ago left a 5 km (3.1 mi) diameter crater at Mary Bay on the edge of Yellowstone Lake (located in the center of the caldera).[18][3] Currently, volcanic activity is exhibited via numerous geothermal vents scattered throughout the region, including the famous Old Faithful Geyser, plus recorded ground-swelling indicating ongoing inflation of the underlying magma chamber.[citation needed]

The volcanic eruptions, as well as the continuing geothermal activity, are a result of a great plume of magma located below the caldera's surface. The magma in this plume contains gases that are kept dissolved by the immense pressure under which the magma is contained. If the pressure is released to a sufficient degree by some geological shift, then some of the gases bubble out and cause the magma to expand. This can cause a chain reaction. If the expansion results in further relief of pressure, for example, by blowing crust material off the top of the chamber, the result is a very large gas explosion.[citation needed]

According to analysis of earthquake data in 2013, the magma chamber is 80 km (50 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide. It also has 4,000 km3 (960 cu mi) underground volume, of which 6–8% is filled with molten rock. This is about 2.5 times bigger than scientists had previously imagined; however, scientists believe that the proportion of molten rock in the chamber is too low to allow for another supereruption.[19][20][21]

In October 2017, research from Arizona State University indicated prior to Yellowstone's last supereruption, magma surged into the magma chamber in two large influxes. An analysis of crystals from Yellowstone's lava showed that prior to the last supereruption, the magma chamber underwent a rapid increase in temperature and change in composition. The analysis indicated that Yellowstone's magma reservoir can reach eruptive capacity and trigger a super-eruption within just decades, not centuries as volcanologists had originally thought.[22][23]

IUGS geological heritage site

In respect of it being "well-known for its past explosive volcanic eruptions and lava flows as well for its world class hydrothermal system", the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included "The Yellowstone volcanic and hydrothermal system" in its assemblage of 100 geological heritage sites around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organization defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as "a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history".[24]

Yellowstone hotspot origin

The source of the Yellowstone hotspot is controversial. Some geoscientists hypothesize that the Yellowstone hotspot is the effect of an interaction between local conditions in the lithosphere and upper mantle convection.[25][26] Others suggest an origin in the deep mantle (mantle plume).[27] Part of the controversy is the relatively sudden appearance of the hotspot in the geologic record. Additionally, the Columbia Basalt flows appeared at the same approximate time in the same place, prompting speculation that they share a common origin. As the Yellowstone hotspot traveled to the east and north, the Columbia disturbance moved northward and eventually subsided.[28]

An alternate theory to the mantle plume model was proposed in 2018. It is suggested that the volcanism may be caused by upwellings from the lower mantle resulting from water-rich fragments of the Farallon plate descending from the Cascadia subduction region, sheared off at a subducted spreading rift.[29]

Others suggest that the mantle plume could not have been a dominant force in Yellowstone volcanism due to the sinking Farallon plate, as it acts as a buffer that breaks apart the plume. Any heat from the plume that does make it to the surface is limited.[30][31]

Hazards

Earthquakes

Incidence of earthquakes in Yellowstone National Park region (1973–2014)[32]

Volcanic and tectonic actions in the region cause between 1,000 and 2,000 measurable earthquakes annually. Most are relatively minor, measuring magnitude 3 or weaker. Occasionally, numerous earthquakes are detected in a relatively short period of time, an event known as an earthquake swarm. In 1985, more than 3,000 earthquakes were measured over a period of several months. More than 70 smaller swarms were detected between 1983 and 2008. The USGS states these swarms are likely caused by slips on pre-existing faults rather than by movements of magma or hydrothermal fluids.[33][34]

In December 2008, continuing into January 2009, more than 500 earthquakes were detected under the northwest end of Yellowstone Lake over a seven-day span, with the largest registering a magnitude of 3.9.[35][36] Another swarm started in January 2010, after the Haiti earthquake and before the Chile earthquake. With 1,620 small earthquakes between January 17, 2010, and February 1, 2010, this swarm was the second-largest ever recorded in the Yellowstone Caldera. The largest of these shocks was a magnitude 3.8 that occurred on January 21, 2010.[34][37] This swarm subsided to background levels by February 21. On March 30, 2014, at 6:34 AM MST, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck Yellowstone, the largest recorded there since February 1980.[38] In February 2018, more than 300 earthquakes occurred, with the largest being a magnitude 2.9.[39]

Volcanoes

Diagram of the Yellowstone Caldera

The Lava Creek eruption of the Yellowstone Caldera, which occurred 640,000 years ago,[40] ejected approximately 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi) of rock, dust and volcanic ash into the atmosphere.[3] It was Yellowstone's third and most recent caldera-forming eruption.

Geologists closely monitor the elevation of the Yellowstone Plateau, which has been rising as quickly as 150 millimetres (5.9 in) per year, as an indirect measurement of changes in magma chamber pressure.[41][42][43]

The upward movement of the Yellowstone caldera floor between 2004 and 2008—almost 75 millimetres (3.0 in) each year—was more than three times greater than ever observed since such measurements began in 1923.[44] From 2004 to 2008, the land surface within the caldera moved upward as much as 8 inches (20 cm) at the White Lake GPS station.[45][46] In January 2010, the USGS stated that "uplift of the Yellowstone Caldera has slowed significantly"[47] and that uplift continues but at a slower pace.[48] USGS, University of Utah and National Park Service scientists with the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory maintain that they "see no evidence that another such cataclysmic eruption will occur at Yellowstone in the foreseeable future. Recurrence intervals of these events are neither regular nor predictable."[3] This conclusion was reiterated in December 2013 in the aftermath of the publication of a study by University of Utah scientists finding that the "size of the magma body beneath Yellowstone is significantly larger than had been thought". The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory issued a statement on its website stating:

Although fascinating, the new findings do not imply increased geologic hazards at Yellowstone, and certainly do not increase the chances of a 'supereruption' in the near future. Contrary to some media reports, Yellowstone is not 'overdue' for a supereruption.[49]

Media reports were more hyperbolic in their coverage.[50]

A study published in GSA Today, the monthly news and science magazine of the Geological Society of America, identified three fault zones where future eruptions are most likely to be centered.[51] Two of those areas are associated with lava flows aged 174,000–70,000 years ago, and the third is a focus of present-day seismicity.[51]

In 2017, NASA conducted a study to determine the feasibility of preventing the volcano from erupting. The results suggested that cooling the magma chamber by 35 percent would be enough to forestall such an incident. NASA proposed introducing water at high pressure 10 kilometers underground. The circulating water would release heat at the surface, possibly in a way that could be used as a geothermal power source. If enacted, the plan would cost about $3.46 billion. Brian Wilcox of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory observes that such a project could incidentally trigger an eruption if the top of the chamber is drilled into.[52][53]

Hydrothermal explosions

Path of the Yellowstone hotspot over the past 16 million years

Studies and analysis may indicate that the greater hazard comes from hydrothermal activity which occurs independently of volcanic activity.[citation needed] Over 20 large craters have been produced in the past 14,000 years, resulting in such features as Mary Bay, Turbid Lake, and Indian Pond, which was created in an eruption about 1300 BC.[citation needed]

In a 2003 report, USGS researchers proposed that an earthquake may have displaced more than 77 million cubic feet (2,200,000 m3; 580,000,000 US gal) of water in Yellowstone Lake, creating colossal waves that unsealed a capped geothermal system and led to the hydrothermal explosion that formed Mary Bay.[54][55]

Further research shows that very distant earthquakes reach and have effects upon the activities at Yellowstone, such as the 1992 7.3 magnitude Landers earthquake in California's Mojave Desert that triggered a swarm of quakes from more than 800 miles (1,300 km) away, and the 2002 7.9 magnitude Denali fault earthquake 2,000 miles (3,200 km) away in Alaska that altered the activity of many geysers and hot springs for several months afterward.[56]

In 2016, the USGS announced plans to map the subterranean systems responsible for feeding the area's hydrothermal activity. According to the researchers, these maps could help predict when another eruption occurs.[57]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Yellowstone Volcano Observatory". United States Geological Survey.
  2. ^ "Yellowstone". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  3. ^ a b c d Lowenstern, Jacob B.; Christiansen, Robert L.; Smith, Robert B.; Morgan, Lisa A.; Heasler, Henry (May 10, 2005). Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future? (Report). United States Geological Survey. Fact Sheet 2005–3024.
  4. ^ Christiansen, Robert J.; Blank, H. Richard Jr. (1972). "Volcanic Stratigraphy of the Quaternary Rhyolite Plateau in Yellowstone National Park" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper. 729-B: B2.
  5. ^ Matthews, Naomi E.; Vazquez, Jorge A.; Calvert, Andrew T. (2015). "Age of the Lava Creek supereruption and magma chamber assembly at Yellowstone based on 40Ar/39Ar and U-Pb dating of sanidine and zircon crystals". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 16 (8): 2508–2528. Bibcode:2015GGG....16.2508M. doi:10.1002/2015GC005881. S2CID 131340369.
  6. ^ Malewar, Amit (October 23, 2019). "Philippines has the earth's largest known caldera". Tech Explorist. Retrieved July 25, 2023.
  7. ^ "Yellowstone Caldera, Wyoming—USGS". Cascade Volcano Observatory. United States Geological Survey. January 22, 2003. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
  8. ^ Perkins, Michael E.; Nash, Barbara P. (March 1, 2002). "Explosive silicic volcanism of the Yellowstone hotspot: The ash fall tuff record". GSA Bulletin. 114 (3): 367–381. Bibcode:2002GSAB..114..367P. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0367:ESVOTY>2.0.CO;2.
  9. ^ Cole, J.; Milner, D.; Spinks, K. (February 2005). "Calderas and caldera structures: a review". Earth-Science Reviews. 69 (1–2): 1–26. Bibcode:2005ESRv...69....1C. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004.
  10. ^ Johnston, Stephen T.; Wynne, P. Jane; Francis, Don; Hart, Craig J. R.; Enkin, Randolph J.; Engebretson, David C. (1996). "Yellowstone in Yukon: The Late Cretaceous Carmacks Group". Geology. 24 (11): 997, 998. Bibcode:1996Geo....24..997J. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0997:YIYTLC>2.3.CO;2.
  11. ^ "Yellowstone hotspot track". Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory. Retrieved June 10, 2010.
  12. ^ Yellowstone Volcanic Hazards, USGS. Volcanoes.usgs.gov (March 1, 2012). Retrieved on December 31, 2013.
  13. ^ West Thumb Lake is not to be confused with West Thumb Geyser Basin. The caldera created West Thumb Lake, and the underlying Yellowstone hotspot keeps West Thumb Geyser Basin active. See Fig. 22 Archived June 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  14. ^ Newhall, Christopher G.; Dzurisin, Daniel (1988). Historical unrest at large calderas of the world (Report). United States Geological Survey. doi:10.3133/b1855. hdl:2027/osu.32435022084362. Bulletin 1855.
  15. ^ This qualitative statement is easily verified by reviewing the Yellowstone area in Google Earth.
  16. ^ Bindeman, Ilya N.; Fu, Bin; Kita, Noriko T.; Valley, John W. (January 2008). "Origin and Evolution of Silicic Magmatism at Yellowstone Based on Ion Microprobe Analysis of Isotopically Zoned Zircons". Journal of Petrology. 49 (1): 163–193. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.583.1851. doi:10.1093/petrology/egm075.
  17. ^ "Secrets of supervolcanoes" (PDF). University of Oregon.
  18. ^ "Introduction to hydrothermal (steam) explosions in Yellowstone". Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Net. Archived from the original on January 6, 2009. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  19. ^ Witze, Alexandra (2013). "Large magma reservoir gets bigger". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.14036. S2CID 130449188.
  20. ^ "USGS: Volcano Hazards Program – Yellowstone Volcano Observatory Featured Articles Archive". Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved April 4, 2014.
  21. ^ "Discovery of Ancient Super-eruptions Suggests the Yellowstone Hotspot May Be Waning (USGS Release Date: JUNE 29, 2020)". Retrieved February 16, 2021.
  22. ^ Aceves, Ana (October 12, 2017). "Yellowstone Supervolcano May Erupt Sooner Than Anticipated". PBS. Retrieved March 12, 2021.
  23. ^ Diebel, Matthew (October 16, 2017). "Scientists seek clues to what triggered past Yellowstone 'supervolcano' eruptions". USA Today. Retrieved March 12, 2021.
  24. ^ "The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS. Retrieved November 13, 2022.
  25. ^ Foulger, Gillian (February 8, 2006). "Yellowstone". MantlePlumes.org. Retrieved February 10, 2008.
  26. ^ Christiansen, Robert L.; Foulger, G. R.; Evans, John R. (2002). "Upper-mantle origin of the Yellowstone hotspot". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 114 (10): 1245–1256. Bibcode:2002GSAB..114.1245C. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<1245:UMOOTY>2.0.CO;2.
  27. ^ "Columbia River Basalts". mantleplumes.org. Retrieved April 15, 2024.
  28. ^ Ivanov, Alexei V. (February 7, 2007). "The Columbia River Flood Basalts: Consequence of subduction-related processes". MantlePlumes.org. Retrieved December 31, 2008.
  29. ^ Zhou, Ying (2018), "Anomalous mantle transition zone beneath the Yellowstone hotspot track", Nature, 11 (6): 449–453, Bibcode:2018NatGe..11..449Z, doi:10.1038/s41561-018-0126-4, S2CID 134251160
  30. ^ Leonard, Tiffany; Liu, Lijun (February 16, 2016). "The role of a mantle plume in the formation of Yellowstone volcanism". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (3): 1132–1139. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43.1132L. doi:10.1002/2015GL067131. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 130205027.
  31. ^ Kincaid, C.; Druken, K. A.; Griffiths, R. W.; Stegman, D. R. (April 7, 2013). "Bifurcation of the Yellowstone plume driven by subduction-induced mantle flow". Nature Geoscience. 6 (5): 395–399. Bibcode:2013NatGe...6..395K. doi:10.1038/ngeo1774. ISSN 1752-0894.
  32. ^ "Yellowstone National Park Earthquake listings". Retrieved April 20, 2013.
  33. ^ "Yellowstone Earthquake Swarms". Yellowstone Volcano Observatory. Retrieved January 1, 2009.
  34. ^ a b "January 2010 Yellowstone Seismicity Summary". Retrieved February 1, 2010.
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Further reading