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===Egypt===
===Egypt===
The oldest water clock of which there is physical evidence dates to ''c.'' 1400 BCE and was used in the [[Temple of Amen-Re]].<ref>{{Citation | last =Cotterell | first =Brian | last2 =Kamminga | first2 =Johan | year =1990 | title =Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: An introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional material culture | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =0521428718}}, pp. 59–61</ref> The oldest documentation of the water clock is the tomb inscription of the 16th century BCE Egyptian court official Amenemhet, which identifies him as its inventor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cotterell|Kamminga|1990|pp=59–61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Berlev | first = Oleg | editor = Donadoni, Sergio | others = Trans. Bianchi, Robert ''et al.'' | title = The Egyptians | year = 1997 | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | id = ISBN 0226155552 | pages = p. 118 | chapter = Bureaucrats}}</ref> These simple water clocks, which were of the outflow type, were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom. There were twelve separate columns with consistently spaced markings on the inside to measure the passage of "hours" as the water level reached them. The columns were for each of the twelve [[month]]s to allow for the variations of the seasonal hours. These clocks were used to determine hours at night, but may have been used in daylight as well.
The oldest water clock of which there is physical evidence dates to ''c.'' 1400 BCE and was used in the [[Temple of Amen-Re]].<ref>{{Citation | last =Cotterell | first =Brian | last2 =Kamminga | first2 =Johan | year =1990 | title =Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: An introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional material culture | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =0521428718}}, pp. 59–61</ref> The oldest documentation of the water clock is the tomb inscription of the 16th century BCE Egyptian court official Amenemhet, which identifies him as its inventor.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cotterell|Kamminga|1990|pp=59–61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Berlev | first = Oleg | editor = Donadoni, Sergio | others = Trans. Bianchi, Robert ''et al.'' | title = The Egyptians | year = 1997 | publisher = The University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | id = ISBN 0226155552 | pages = p. 118 | chapter = Bureaucrats}}</ref> These simple water clocks, which were of the outflow type, were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom. There were twelve separate columns with consistently spaced markings on the inside to measure the passage of "hours" as the water level reached them. The columns were for each of the twelve [[month]]s to allow for the variations of the seasonal hours. These clocks were used to determine hours at night, but may have been used in daylight as well.as you as something


===Babylon===
===Babylon===

Revision as of 12:58, 18 September 2007

A water clock or clepsydra (Greek kleptein, to steal; hydor, water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel where it is measured.

Water clock overview

Water clocks, along with the sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, with the only exceptions being the vertical gnomon and day-counting tally stick.[1] Given their great antiquity, where and when they first existed are not known and perhaps unknowable. The simplest form of water clocks, the bowl-shaped outflow type, are known to have existed in Babylon and in Egypt around the 16th century B.C. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks but the earliest dates are less certain. Some authors, however, write about water clocks appearing as early as 4000 BC.[2]

The Greek and Roman civilizations are credited for initially advancing the water clock design to include complex gearing, which was connected to fanciful automata and improved accuracy. These advances were passed on through Byzantium and Islamic times, which eventually made their way on to Europe. Independently, China developed their own advanced water clocks, passing on their ideas to Korea and Japan.

Some water clock designs were developed independently and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade. It is important to point out that the need for the common person to 'know what time it is' largely did not exist until the Industrial Revolution, when it became important to keep track of hours worked. In the earliest of time, however, the purpose for using a water clock was for astronomical and astrological reasons. These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial. Through the centuries, water clocks were used for timing lawyer's speeches during a trial, labors of prostitutes, night watches of guards, sermons and Masses in church, to name only a few. While never reaching the level of accuracy based on today's standards of timekeeping, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia, until it was replaced by the more accurate pendulum clock in 17th century Europe.

Egypt

The oldest water clock of which there is physical evidence dates to c. 1400 BCE and was used in the Temple of Amen-Re.[3] The oldest documentation of the water clock is the tomb inscription of the 16th century BCE Egyptian court official Amenemhet, which identifies him as its inventor.[4][5] These simple water clocks, which were of the outflow type, were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom. There were twelve separate columns with consistently spaced markings on the inside to measure the passage of "hours" as the water level reached them. The columns were for each of the twelve months to allow for the variations of the seasonal hours. These clocks were used to determine hours at night, but may have been used in daylight as well.as you as something

Babylon

In Babylon, water clocks were of the outflow type and were cylindrical in shape. Use of the water clock as an aid to astronomical calculations dates back to the Old Babylonian period (c. 2000 BCE–c. 1600 BCE).[6]

While there are no surviving water clocks from the Mesopotamian region, most evidence of their existence comes from writings on clay tablets. Two collections of tablets, for example, are the Enuma-Anu-Enlil (1600–1200 BCE) and the MUL.APIN (7th century BCE).[7] In these tablets, water clocks are used in reference to payment of the night and day watches (guards).

These clocks were unique, as they did not have an indicator such as hands (as are typically used today) or grooved notches (as were used in Egypt). Instead, these clocks measured time "by the weight of water flowing from" it.[8] The volume was measured in capacity units called qa. The weight, mana (the Greek unit for about one pound), is the weight of water in a water clock.

It is important to note that during Babylonian times, time was measured with temporal hours. So, as seasons changed, so did the length of a day. "To define the length of a 'night watch' at the summer solstice, one had to pour two mana of water into a cylindrical clepsydra; its emptying indicated the end of the watch. One-sixth of a mana had to be added each succeeding half-month. At equinox, three mana had to be emptied in order to correspond to one watch, and four mana were emptied for each watch of the winter solstitial night."[8]

Greece and Rome

In Ctesibius's clepsydra from the 3rd century BC, the human-shaped hour pointer ascends as water flows in. Outflow drives a series of gears that rotates a cylinder bearing hour lengths appropriate for each day's date.

In Greece, a water clock was known as a clepsydra (water thief). A commonly used water clock was the simple outflow clepsydra. This small earthenware vessel had a hole in its side near the base. In both Greek and Roman times, this type of clepsydra was used in courts for allocating periods of time to speakers. In important cases, when a person's life was at stake for example, it was filled. But, for more minor cases, it was only partially filled. If proceedings were interrupted for any reason, such as to examine documents, the hole in the clepsydra was stopped with wax until the speaker was able to resume his pleading.[9]

Between 270 BC and AD 500, Greek (Ctesibius, Hero of Alexandria, Archimedes) and Roman horologists and astronomers were developing more elaborate mechanized water clocks. The added complexity was aimed at making the flow more constant by regulating the pressure, and at providing fancier displays of the passage of time. For example, some water clocks rang bells and gongs, while others opened doors and windows to show figurines of people, or moved pointers, and dials. Some even displayed astrological models of the universe.

A Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, supervised the construction of his Horologion, known today as the Tower of the Winds, in the Athens marketplace (or Agora) in the first half of the 1st century BC. This octagonal structure showed scholars and shoppers both sundials and mechanical hour indicators. It featured a 24-hour mechanized clepsydra and indicators for the eight winds from which the tower got its name, and it displayed the seasons of the year and astrological dates and periods.

India

N. Kameswara Rao suggests that pots excavated from Mohenjodaro might have been used as water clocks; they are tapered at bottom, have a hole on the side, and are similar to the utensil used to perform abhishekam (pour holy water) on shivalingam.[10]

N. Narahari Achar[11] and Subhash Kak[12] suggest that the use of the water clock in ancient India is mentioned in the Atharvaveda from the 2nd millennium BC.

Ghati or Kapala (clepsydra or water clock) is referred to in Jyotisha Vedanga, where the amount of water that measures a nadika (24 minutes) is mentioned. A more developed form of the clepsydra is described in chapter xiii, 23 of the Suryasiddhanta.[13]

At Nalanda, a Buddhist university, four hours a day and four hours at night were measured by a water clock, which consisted of a copper bowl holding two large floats in a larger bowl filled with water. The bowl was filled with water from a small hole at its bottom; it sank when completely filled and was marked by the beating of a drum at daytime. The amount of water added varied with the seasons and this clock was operated by the students of the university.[14]

The description of a water clock in astrologer Varahimira's Pancasiddhantika (505 AD) adds further detail to the account given in the Suryasiddhanta. The description given by mathematician Brahmagupta in his work Brahmasphutasiddhanta matches with that given in the Suryasiddhanta. Astronomer Lallacharya describes this instrument in detail.[15] In practice, the dimensions were determined by experiment.

China

The water powered mechanism of Su Song's astronomical clock tower.

In China, as well as throughout eastern Asia, water clocks were very important in the study of astronomy and astrology. The oldest reference dates the use of the water-clock in China to the 6th century BCE.[16] From about 200 BCE onwards, the outflow clepsydra was replaced almost everywhere in China by the inflow type with an indicator-rod borne on a float.[16]

Huan Tan (40 BCE–30 CE), a Secretary at the Court in charge of clepsydrae, wrote that he had to compare clepsydras with sundials because of how temperature and humidity affected their accuracy, demonstrating that the effects of evaporation, as well as of temperature on the speed at which water flows, were known at this time.[17] In 976 CE, Zhang Sixun addressed the problem of the water in clepsydrae freezing in cold weather by using mercury instead.[18]

The use of clepsydrae to drive mechanisms illustrating astronomical phenomena began with Zhang Heng in 125 CE.[19] This led to the invention by Yi Xing and Liang Lingzan in 725 CE of a clock driven by a water-wheel linkwork escapement.[20] The same mechanism would be used by Su Song in 1088 to power his astronomical clock tower.[21] Su Song's clock tower, over 30 feet tall, possessed a bronze power-driven armillary sphere for observations, an automatically rotating celestial globe, and five front panels with doors that permitted the viewing of changing manikins which rang bells or gongs, and held tablets indicating the hour or other special times of the day.

Korea

Scaled model of Jang Yeong-sil's Self-striking water clock.

In Korea, timekeeping was both a royal duty and a royal prerogative from its Three Kingdom Period (c. 37 BC) onwards. In 1434 during the Choson (or Joseon) Dynasty, Chang Yongsil (or Jang Young Sil), Palace Guard and later Chief Court Engineer, constructed the Chagyongnu (self-striking water clock or striking clepsydra) for King Sejong. What made the Chagyongnu self-striking (or automatic) was the use of jack-work mechanisms, by which three wooden figures (jacks) struck objects to signal the time. This innovation no longer required the reliance of human workers, known as "rooster men", to constantly replenish it. By 554, the water clock spread from Korea to Japan. Water clocks were used and improved upon throughout Asia well into the 15th century.

Islamic and Arabic water clocks

al-Jazari's elephant water clock (1206 AD).[22]

In Islamic times (632 - 1280), the use of the water clock has its roots from Archimedes during the rise of Alexandria and continues on through Byzantium. Al-Jazari, however, is credited for going "well beyond anything" that had preceded it. In Al-Jazari's treatise, he describes one of his water clocks, the elephant clock. Hill, speaking on the treatise, states that "the invention of the basic machinery and a single time-recording device was indeed made by Archimedes."[23] The clock recorded the passage of temporal hours, which meant that the rate of flow had to be changed daily to match the uneven length of days throughout the year. To accomplish this, the clock had two tanks, the top tank was connected to the time indicating mechanisms and the bottom was connected to the flow control regulator. Basically, at daybreak the tap was opened and water flowed from the top tank to the bottom tank via a float regulator that maintained a constant pressure in the receiving tank.[24]

Modern water clock designs

Bernard Gitton's Time-Flow clock.

Today, few water clocks exist. In 1979, French scientist Bernard Gitton began creating his Time-Flow Clocks, which are a modern-day approach to water clocks. His unique glasstube design can be found in over 30 locations throughout the world, including the Children's Museum in Indianapolis, Indiana, and the Shopping Iguatemi in São Paulo, Brasil. Also, there are some other modern designs of water clocks, including the Royal Gorge water clock in Colorado and the Woodgrove Mall in Nanaimo, British Columbia. Today overall, the use of water flow to power a clock is a rarely practiced and forgotten art, where its purpose has become more for show and novelty than for functional accuracy.

Notes

  1. ^ Turner 1984, p. 1
  2. ^ Cowan 1958, p. 58
  3. ^ Cotterell, Brian; Kamminga, Johan (1990), Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: An introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional material culture, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521428718, pp. 59–61
  4. ^ Cotterell & Kamminga 1990, pp. 59–61
  5. ^ Berlev, Oleg (1997). "Bureaucrats". In Donadoni, Sergio (ed.). The Egyptians. Trans. Bianchi, Robert et al. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. p. 118. ISBN 0226155552. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  6. ^ Pingree, David (1998). "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens". In Stephanie Dalley (ed.). The Legacy of Mesopotamia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. pp. 125–126. ISBN 0198149468. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  7. ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. p. 15. ISBN 0195095391. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  8. ^ a b Neugebauer 1947, pp. 39–40
  9. ^ Hill 1981, p. 6
  10. ^ Rao, N. Kameswara (2005). "Aspects of prehistoric astronomy in India" (PDF). Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India. 33 (4): 499–511. Retrieved 2007-05-11. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |quotes= ignored (help)
  11. ^ Achar, N. Narahari (1998). "On the meaning of AV XIX. 53.3: Measurement of Time?". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. Retrieved 2007-05-11. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ^ Kak, Subhash (2003-02-17). "Babylonian and Indian Astronomy: Early Connections".
  13. ^ "A copper vessel (in the shape of the lower half of the water jar) which has a small hole in it's bottom and being placed upon clean water in a basin sinks exactly 60 times in a day and at night." - chapter xiii, 23 of the Suryasiddhanta.
  14. ^ Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). Education in Ancient India. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers. p. 171. ISBN 9004125566.
  15. ^ "A copper vessel weighing 10 palas, 6 angulas in height and twice as much in breadth at the mouth--this vessel of the capacity of 60 palas of water and hemispherical in form is called a ghati." This copper vessel, which was bored with a needle and made of 3 1/8 masas of gold and 4 angulas long, gets filled in one nadika."
  16. ^ a b Needham 2000, p. 479
  17. ^ Needham 1995, pp. 321–322
  18. ^ Needham 2000, pp. 469–471
  19. ^ Needham 2000, pps. 30, 532
  20. ^ Needham 2000, pps. 471, 490, 532
  21. ^ Needham 2000, p. 462
  22. ^ ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari (1974). The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices. Translated and annotated by Donald Routledge Hill. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
  23. ^ Hill 1976
  24. ^ al-Hassan & Hill 1986, pp. 57–59

Bibliography

Overview of water clocks and other time instruments
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  • Cowan, Harrison J. (1958), Time and Its Measurement: From the stone age to the nuclear age, Ohio: The World Publishing Company
  • Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard (1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Trans. Thomas Dunlap. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226155102.
  • K. Higgins, D. Miner, C.N. Smith, D.B. Sullivan (2004), A Walk Through Time (version 1.2.1). [Online] Available: http://physics.nist.gov/time [2005, December 8]. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD.
  • Jespersen, James and Fitz-Randolph, Jane. "From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency." Second Revised Edition, 1999. ISBN 0-486-40913-9
  • King, David A. “Towards a History from Antiquity to the Renaissance of Sundials and Other Instruments for Reckoning Time by the Sun and Stars.” Annals of Science, Taylor & Francis. V. 61, Num. 3. July 2004. pp. 375-388. DOI: 10.1080/00033790310001642795.
  • Landes, D. Revolution in Time. Harvard University Press (1983).
  • McNown, J.S. “When Time Flowed: The Story of the Clepsydra.” La Houille Blanche, 5, 1976, 347-353. ISSN 0018-6368
  • Milham, Willis I. Time & Timekeepers including The History, Construction, Care, and Accuracy of Clocks and Watches. The Macmillan Company, NY 1945.
  • Rees, Abraham. “Rees's Clocks, Watches, and Chronometers 1819-20.” Charles E. Tuttle Company, Inc. 1970.
  • Richards, E.G. "Mapping Time: The Calendar and It's History." Oxford University Press, 1998.
  • Toulmin, Stephen & Goodhead, J. The Discovery of Time. University of Chicago Press, 1999. ISBN 0-226-80842-4
  • Turner, Anthony J. (1984), The Time Museum, vol. I: Time Measuring Instruments, Part 3: Water-clocks, Sand-glasses, Fire-clocks, Rockford, IL, ISBN 0-912947-01-2{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Babylonian water clocks
  • Englund, R.K. "Administrative Timekeeping in Ancient Mesopotamia." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, V. XXXI, 31 (1988) 121-185.
  • Fermor, John, & Steele, John M. “The design of Babylonian waterclocks: Astronomical and experimental evidence.” Centaurus. International Journal of the History of Mathematics, Science, and Technology. Vol. 42 Issue 3, pp. 210-222. July 2000. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Høyrup, J., “A Note on Waterclocks and the Authority of Texts.” Archiv für Orientforschung, 44/45 (1997/98), 192-194 (*).
  • Michel-Nozières, C. “Second Millennium Babylonian Water Clocks: a physical study.” Centaurus, Vol. 42, Issue 3, pp. 180-209. July 2000.
  • Neugebauer, Otto (1947), "Studies in Ancient Astronomy. VIII. The Water Clock in Babylonian Astronomy", Isis, 37 (1/2): pp. 37–43 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help). JSTOR link. Reprinted in Neugebauer (1983), pp. 239-245 (*).
  • Price, Derek deSolla. Science Since Babylon. Yale University Press, New Haven 1976.
  • Teresi, Dick. "Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - from the Babylonians to the Maya." Simon & Schuster, NY 2002.
  • van der Waerden, Bartel Leendert, “Babylonian Astronomy: III. The Earliest Astronomical Computations.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 10 (1951), 20-34 JSTOR link.
Chinese water clocks
  • Lorch, Richard P. "Al-Khazini's Balance-clock and the Chinese Steelyard Clepsydra." Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences, June 1981, 31: 183-189.
  • Needham, J., Ling, W., and de Solla Price, D.J. "Heavenly Clockwork: The Great Astronomical Clocks of Medieval China." 2nd Edition. 1986. ISBN 0-521-32276-6.
  • Needham, Joseph (1995), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. III: Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521058015
  • Needham, Joseph (2000), Science & Civilisation in China, vol. IV:2: Mechanical Engineering, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521058031
  • Quan, He Jun. “Research on scale and precision of the water clock in ancient China.” History of Oriental Astronomy, pp. 57-61. (Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union Colloquium No. 91 held in New Delhi, November 13-16, 1985). Edited by G. Swarup, A. K. Bag and K. S. Shukla. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987. ISBN 0-521-34659-2.
  • Walsh, Jennifer Robin. “Ancient Chinese Astronomical Technologies.” American Physical Society, Northwest Section. May, 2004. Meeting, 21-22 May, 2004. Pullman, WA.
Egyptian water clocks
  • Clagett, Marshall. Ancient Egyptian Science, Volume II: Calendars, Clocks, and Astronomy. 1995. pp. 457-462. ISBN 0-87169-214-7
  • Fermor, John, “Timing the Sun in Egypt and Mesopotamia.” Vistas in Astronomy, 41 (1997), 157-167. Elsevier Science. DOI: 10.1016/S0083-6656(96)00069-4.
  • Neugebauer, Otto & Parker, Richard A. “Egyptian Astronomical Texts: Iii. Decans, Planets, Constellations, and Zodiacs.”
  • Pogo, Alexander. “Egyptian water clocks”, Isis, vol. 25, pp. 403-425, 1936. Reprinted in Philosophers and Machines, O. Mayr, editor, Science History Publications, 1976. ISSN 0021-1753
  • Slowley, R.W., "Ancient Clepsydrae", Ancient Egypt, 1924, pages 43-50.
  • Slowley, R.W., "Primitive methods of measuring time", JEA 17, 1931, pages 174-176.
European water clocks
  • Drover, C.B. "A Medieval Monastic Water Clock", Antiquarian Horology, Vol. I, No. 5 (1954), 54-58.
  • Hill, Donald Routledge. "A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times." La Salle, Ill., Open Court Pub. 1996. ISBN 0-415-15291-7
  • Hill, D.R. "The Toledo Water-Clocks of c.1075." History of Technology, vol.16, 1994, pp.62-71
  • Scattergood, John. "Writing the clock: the reconstruction of time in the late Middle Ages." European Review, Issue 4 (Oct, 2003), 11: 453-474 Cambridge University Press (School of English, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland. jscatter@tcd.ie)
Greek and Alexandrian water clocks
  • Hill, D.R. (ed. & trans.) (1976). Archimedes “On the Construction of Water-Clocks,” Turner & Devereux, Paris.
  • Lepschy, Antonio M. "Feedback Control in Ancient Water and Mechanical Clocks." IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol. 35, No. 1, February, 1992.
  • Noble, J.V. & de Solla Price, D. J. “The Water clock in the Tower of the Winds.” American Journal of Archaeology, 72, 1968, 345-355.
  • Woodcroft, Bennet (translator). "The Pneumatics of Hero of Alexandria." London, Taylor Walton and Maberly, 1851.
  • Vitruvius, P., The Ten Books on Architecture. (M.H. Morgan, translator) New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1960.
Indian water clocks
  • Achar, N. “On the Vedic origin of the ancient mathematical astronomy of India.” Journal of Studies on Ancient India, vol 1, 95-108, 1998.
  • Fleet, J. F., “The ancient Indian water clock.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 213-230, 1915.
  • Kumar, Narendra "Science in Ancient India" (2004). ISBN 8126120568.
  • Pingree, D. “The Mesopotamian origin of early Indian mathematical astronomy.” Journal of the History of Astronomy, vol. 4, 1-12, 1973.
  • Pingree, D. “The recovery of early Greek astronomy from India.” Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol 7, 109-123, 1976.
Islamic water clocks
  • Hill, Donald Routledge (ed. & trans.) (1976). Archimedes “On the Construction of Water-Clocks,” Turner & Devereux, Paris.
  • Hill, D.R. (1981), Arabic Water - Clocks, Syria: University of Aleppo
  • al-Hassan, Ahmad Y.; Hill, Donald R. (1986), Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521263336
  • Hill, Donald Routledge. “Studies in Medieval Islamic Technology: From Philo to Al-Jazari - from Alexandria to Diyar Bakr.” (Collected Studies Series, 555)
  • King, D. Mikat. “Astronomical Timekeeping.” The Encyclopaedia of Islam. 7, Brill, (1990) Reprinted as Chapter V in King, D. “Astronomy in the Service of Islam Variorum.” (1993)
Japanese water clocks
  • Kiyoyasu, Maruyma. "Hoken shakai to gijutsu - wadokei ni shuyaku sareta hoken gijutsu." Kagakushi kenkyu, Sept. 1954, 31:16-22.
Korean water clocks
  • Hahn, Young-Ho and Nam, Moon-Hyon. "Reconstruction of the Armillary Spheres of Mid-Chosun: The Armillary Clocks of Yi Minchol." Hanguk Kwahaksa Hakhoeji (Journal of the Korean History of Science Society)19.1 (1997): 3-19. (in Korean)
  • Hahn, Young-Ho, et al. "Astronomical Clocks of Chosun Dynasty: King Sejong's Heumgyonggaknu. Kisulgwa Yoksa (Journal of the Korean Society for the History of Technology and Industry) 1.1 (2000): 99-140. (in Korean).
  • Hong, Sungook "Book Review: Korean Water-Clocks: "Chagyongnu", the Striking Clepsydra, and the History of Control and Instrumentation Engineering." Technology and Culture - Volume 39, Number 3, July 1998, pp. 553-555
  • Nam, Moon-Hyon. “Chagyongnu: The Automatic Striking Water clock.” Korea Journal, 30.7 (1990): 9-21.
  • Nam, Moon-Hyon. Korean Water Clocks: Jagyongnu, The Striking Clepsydra and The History of Control and Instrumentation Engineering. Seoul: Konkuk University Press, 1995. (in Korean)
  • Nam, Moon-Hyon. On the BORUGAKGI of Kim Don -- Principles and Structures of JAYEONGNU. Hanguksa Yeongu (Studies on Korean History),101 (1998): 75-114 (in Korean)
  • Nam, Moon-Hyon. Jang Yeong-Shil and Jagyeongnu - Reconstruction of Time Measuring History of Choseon Period. Seoul National University Press, 2002. (in Korean)
  • Nam, Moon-Hyon and Jeon San-Woon. “Timekeeping Systems of Early Choson Dynasty.” Proceedings of First International Conference on Oriental Astronomy, From Guo Shoujing to King Sejong, Seoul, October 6-11, 1993, Seoul, Yonsei University Press, 1997. 305-324.
  • Needham, Joseph, Major, John S., & Gwei-Djen, Lu. “Hall of Heavenly Records: Korean Astronomical Instruments and Clocks, 1380-1780.” Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-521-30368-0
  • Hyeonjong Shillock (Veritable Records of King Hyeonjong), 1669
  • Jungjong Shillok (Veritable Records of King Jungjong), 1536.
  • Sejong Shillock (Veritable Records of King Sejong), Chapter. 65, A.D. 1434 and Chapter. 80, A.D. 1438.
Mesopotamian water clocks
  • Brown, David R., Fermor, John, & Walker, Christopher B.F., “The Water Clock in Mesopotamia.” Archiv für Orientforschung, 46/47 (1999/2000)
  • Chadwick, R. “The Origins of Astronomy and Astrology in Mesopotamia.” Archaeoastronomy. BULL. CTR ARCH. V. 7:1-4, P. 89, 1984. KNUDSEN Bibliographic Code: 1984BuCAr...7...89C
  • Fermor, John, “Timing the Sun in Egypt and Mesopotamia.” Vistas in Astronomy, 41 (1997), 157-167. Elsevier Science. DOI: 10.1016/S0083-6656(96)00069-4.
  • Walker, Christopher and Britton, John. “Astronomy and Astrology in Mesopotamia.” BMP, 1996 (especially pp. 42-67)
Present-day water clocks
  • Gitton, Bernard. “Time, like an everflowing stream.” Trans. Mlle. Annie Chadeyron. Ed. Anthony Randall. Horological Journal 131.12 (June 1989): 18-20.
  • Taylor, Robert. "Taiwan's Biggest Cuckoo Clock?: Recreating an Astronomical Timepiece". Sinorama Magazine. 3-15-2006
  • Xuan, Gao. "Principle Research and Reconstruction Experiment of the Astronomical Clock Tower in Ancient China." Proceeding of the 11th World Congress in Mechanism and machine Science. August 18-21, 2003. Tianjin, China.
Other topics on water clocks and related material
  • Bedini, S.A. "The Compartmented Cylindrical Clepsydra." Technology and Culture 3(2):115-141. 1962. ISSN 0040-165X
  • Goodenow, J., Orr, R., & Ross, D. "Mathematical Models of Water Clocks." Rochester Institute of Technology
  • Landels, John G. "Water-Clocks and Time Measurement in Classical Antiquity." Endeavour 3(1):32-37. 1979. ISSN 0160-9327
  • Mills, A.A. “Newton’s Water Clocks and the Fluid Mechanics of Clepsydrae.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 37(1):35-61. 1982. ISSN 0035-9149
  • Neugebauer, Otto. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity. Dover Publications, NY 1969.
  • Sarma, S.R., “Setting up the Water Clock for Telling the Time of Marriage.” in Studies in the History of the Exact Sciences in Honour of David Pingree, éd. Ch. Burnett, J.P. Hogendijk, K. Plofker, M. Yano, Leiden-Boston, 2004, pp. 302-330.
  • Snell, Daniel. “Life in the Ancient Near East, 3100-332 B.C.E.” ISBN 0-300-07666-5.
Non-English resources
  • Bilfinger, Gustav, Die babylonische Doppelstunde: Eine chronologische Untersuchung (Wildt, Suttgart, 1888).
  • Borchardt, Ludwig. 1920. “Die Altägyptische Zeitmessung.” (Old Egyptian time measurement). Berlin/Leipzig.
  • Daressy, G., "Deux clepsydres antiques", BIE, serie 5, 9, 1915, pages 5-16
  • Ginzel, Friedrich Karl, “Die Wassermessungen der Babylonier und das Sexagesimalsystem”, Klio: Beiträge zur alten Geschichte, 16 (1920), 234-241.
  • Planchon, "L'Heure Par Les Clepsydres." La Nature. pp.55-59.
  • Thureau-Dangin, François, “La clepsydre chez les Babyloniens [Notes assyriologiques LXIX]”, Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale, 29 (1932), 133-136.
  • Thureau-Dangin, François, “Clepsydre babylonienne et clepsydre égyptienne”, Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale, 30 (1933), 51-52.
  • Thureau-Dangin, François, “Le clepsydre babylonienne”, Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale, 34 (1937), 144.

See also

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