Telescope: Difference between revisions
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[[Image:100inchHooker.jpg|thumb|right|175px|The 100 inch (2.5 m) Hooker [[reflecting telescope]] at [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] near [[Los Angeles]], California.]] |
[[Image:100inchHooker.jpg|thumb|right|175px|The 100 inch (2.5 m) Hooker [[reflecting telescope]] at [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] near [[Los Angeles]], California.]] |
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==History== |
==History== |
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{{main|History of telescopes}} |
{{main|History of telescopes}} |
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The history of the telescope dates back to the Middle Ages, when [[Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Robert Grosseteste]] and other scientists studied magnifying properties of lenses. Although there were some recorded instances of pre-17th century [[Middle East |
The history of the telescope dates back to the Middle Ages, when [[Ibn al-Haytham]], [[Robert Grosseteste]] and other scientists studied magnifying properties of lenses. Although there were some recorded instances of pre-17th century [[Middle East]]ern and [[Europe]]an opticians—such as [[Leonard Digges]], [[Taqi al-Din]] and others—creating devices that could have functioned as telescopes, the earliest known working telescopes in the modern sense were [[refracting telescope]]s that appeared in the [[Netherlands]] in [[1608]]. These were credited to three individuals, [[Hans Lippershey]] and [[Zacharias Janssen]], spectacle-makers from Middelburg, and [[Jacob Metius]] of [[Alkmaar]]. [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] greatly improved upon this design the following year. [[Niccolò Zucchi]] is credited with constructing the first telescope to use mirrors, a [[reflecting telescope]], in 1616. In 1668 [[Isaac Newton]] designed an improved reflecting telescope that bares his name, the [[Newtonian telescope|Newtonian reflector]]. |
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The invention of the [[achromatic lens]] in 1733 in part corrected color aberrations present in the simple lense and enabled the construction of shorter, higher functioning refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, although not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing [[speculum metal]] mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th century |
The invention of the [[achromatic lens]] in 1733 in part corrected color aberrations present in the simple lense and enabled the construction of shorter, higher functioning refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, although not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing [[speculum metal]] mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th century—a problem alleviated by the introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in 1857<ref>[http://www.madehow.com/inventorbios/39/Jean-Bernard-L-on-Foucault.html madehow.com - Inventor Biographies - Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault Biography (1819-1868)]</ref>, and aluminized mirrors in 1932<ref>[http://www.cambridge.org/uk/astronomy/features/amateur/files/p28-4.pdf Bakich sample pages Chapter 2, Page 3] ''"John Donavan Strong, a young physicist at the California Institute of Technology, was one of the first to coat a mirror with aluminum. He did it by thermal vacuum evaporation. The first mirror he aluminized, in 1932, is the earliest known example of a telescope mirror coated by this technique."''</ref>. The maximum physical size limit of the refracting telescope objectives, around 1 meter (40 inches), has dictated that the vast majority of large optical research telescopes built since the turn of the [[20th century]] be reflectors. |
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physicist at the California Institute of Technology, was one |
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of the first to coat a mirror with aluminum. He did it by thermal vacuum evaporation. The first mirror he aluminized, in 1932, is the earliest known example of a telescope mirror |
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coated by this technique."'']</ref>. The maximum physical size limit of the refracting telescope objectives, at around 1 meter (40 inches), has dictated that the vast majority of large optical research telescopes built since the turn of the [[20th century]] be reflectors. |
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The 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths, from [[radio telescope|radio]] to [[gamma-ray telescope|gamma-rays]]. The first [[radio telescope]] went into operation in 1937. Since then a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed. |
The 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths, from [[radio telescope|radio]] to [[gamma-ray telescope|gamma-rays]]. The first [[radio telescope]] went into operation in 1937. Since then a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed. |
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{{Citations missing|date=July 2008}} |
{{Citations missing|date=July 2008}} |
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The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments and is difficult to define. They all have the attribute of collecting electromagnetic radiation so it can be studied or analyzed in some manner. The most common type is the optical telescope. Other types also exist and are listed below. |
The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments and is difficult to define. They all have the attribute of collecting electromagnetic radiation so it can be studied or analyzed in some manner. The most common type is the optical telescope. Other types also exist and are listed below. |
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===Optical telescopes=== |
===Optical telescopes=== |
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[[Image:Telescope.jpg|thumb|right|160px|50 cm refracting telescope at [[Nice Observatory]].]] |
[[Image:Telescope.jpg|thumb|right|160px|50 cm refracting telescope at [[Nice Observatory]].]] |
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{{main|Optical telescope}} |
{{main|Optical telescope}} |
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An optical telescope gathers and [[Focus (optics)|focus]]es light mainly from the visible part of the [[ |
An optical telescope gathers and [[Focus (optics)|focus]]es light mainly from the visible part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] (although some work in the [[infrared]] and [[ultraviolet]]). Optical telescopes increase the apparent [[angular size]] of distant objects, as well as their apparent [[brightness]]. Telescopes work by employing one or more curved optical elements—usually made from [[glass]]—[[Lens (optics)|lenses]] or [[mirror]]s to gather light or other electromagnetic radiation and bring that light or radiation to a focal point, where the image can be observed, photographed, studied, or sent to a computer. Optical telescopes are used for [[astronomy]] and in many non-astronomical instruments, including: ''[[theodolite]]s'' (including ''transits''), ''[[spotting scope]]s'', ''[[monocular]]s'', ''[[binoculars]],'' ''[[camera lens]]es'', and ''spyglasses''. There are three main types: |
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* The [[refracting telescope]] which uses lenses to form an image. |
* The [[refracting telescope]], which uses lenses to form an image. |
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* The [[reflecting telescope]] which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image. |
* The [[reflecting telescope]], which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image. |
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* The [[Catadioptric#Catadioptric Telescopes|catadioptric telescope]] which uses mirrors combined with lenses |
* The [[Catadioptric#Catadioptric Telescopes|catadioptric telescope]], which uses mirrors combined with lenses—either in front of the mirror or somewhere within the optical path—to form an image. |
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===Radio telescopes=== |
===Radio telescopes=== |
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{{main|Radio telescope}} |
{{main|Radio telescope}} |
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[[Image:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Very Large Array]] at Socorro, New Mexico, United States.]] |
[[Image:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Very Large Array]] at Socorro, New Mexico, United States.]] |
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Radio telescopes are [[Directional antenna|directional]] [[radio antennas]] that often have a parabolic shape. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the [[wavelength]] being observed. Multi-element [[Radio telescope]]s are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large "virtual" apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes |
Radio telescopes are [[Directional antenna|directional]] [[radio antennas]] that often have a parabolic shape. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the [[wavelength]] being observed. Multi-element [[Radio telescope]]s are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large "virtual" apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes; this process is known as [[aperture synthesis]]. As of [[2005]], the current record array size is many times the width of the [[Earth]], utilizing space-based [[Very Long Baseline Interferometry]] (VLBI) telescopes such as the [[Japan]]ese [[HALCA]] [http://www.vsop.isas.ac.jp/ VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite]. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using [[Optical interferometry#Astronomical Optical Interferometry|optical interferometers]] and [[aperture masking interferometry]] at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect [[microwave radiation]], which is often used to help study the leftover [[Big Bang]] radiation and also can be used to collect radiation when visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from [[quasar]]s. Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as [[Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence|SETI]] and the [[Arecibo Observatory]] to search for exterrestrial life. One particularly exciting example is the [[Wow! signal]], recorded in 1977. |
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===X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes=== |
===X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes=== |
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{{main|X-ray astronomy|gamma-ray astronomy}} |
{{main|X-ray astronomy|gamma-ray astronomy}} |
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| ⚫ | Since [[X-ray]] and [[gamma ray]] radiation go through most metals and glasses, some X-ray telescopes use [[Wolter telescope]]s composed of ring-shaped "glancing" [[mirror]]s made of [[heavy metals]] that reflect the rays just a few [[degree (angle)|degree]]s. The mirrors are usually a section of a rotated [[parabola]] and a [[hyperbola]] or [[ellipse]]. Gamma-ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely, and use coded aperture masks; the pattern of shadows the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image. |
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| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | [[X-ray]] and [[gamma |
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| ⚫ | |||
[[Image:Atmospheric electromagnetic transmittance or opacity.jpg|thumb|center|600px|A diagram of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] with the Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) and the types of telescopes used to image parts of the spectrum.]] |
[[Image:Atmospheric electromagnetic transmittance or opacity.jpg|thumb|center|600px|A diagram of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] with the Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) and the types of telescopes used to image parts of the spectrum.]] |
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Revision as of 15:07, 31 July 2008
A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects and the collection of electromagnetic radiation. The first known practically functioning telescopes were invented in the Netherlands in the beginning of the 17th century. The name "Telescope" (from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'; teleskopos = 'far-seeing') was invented by an unidentified Greek poet/theologian, present at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi[1], for an instrument constructed by Galileo Galilei. "Telescopes" can refer to a whole range of instruments operating in most regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
History
The history of the telescope dates back to the Middle Ages, when Ibn al-Haytham, Robert Grosseteste and other scientists studied magnifying properties of lenses. Although there were some recorded instances of pre-17th century Middle Eastern and European opticians—such as Leonard Digges, Taqi al-Din and others—creating devices that could have functioned as telescopes, the earliest known working telescopes in the modern sense were refracting telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. These were credited to three individuals, Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, spectacle-makers from Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo greatly improved upon this design the following year. Niccolò Zucchi is credited with constructing the first telescope to use mirrors, a reflecting telescope, in 1616. In 1668 Isaac Newton designed an improved reflecting telescope that bares his name, the Newtonian reflector.
The invention of the achromatic lens in 1733 in part corrected color aberrations present in the simple lense and enabled the construction of shorter, higher functioning refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, although not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing speculum metal mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th century—a problem alleviated by the introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in 1857[2], and aluminized mirrors in 1932[3]. The maximum physical size limit of the refracting telescope objectives, around 1 meter (40 inches), has dictated that the vast majority of large optical research telescopes built since the turn of the 20th century be reflectors.
The 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths, from radio to gamma-rays. The first radio telescope went into operation in 1937. Since then a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed.
Types of telescopes
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (July 2008) |
The name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments and is difficult to define. They all have the attribute of collecting electromagnetic radiation so it can be studied or analyzed in some manner. The most common type is the optical telescope. Other types also exist and are listed below.
Optical telescopes
An optical telescope gathers and focuses light mainly from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum (although some work in the infrared and ultraviolet). Optical telescopes increase the apparent angular size of distant objects, as well as their apparent brightness. Telescopes work by employing one or more curved optical elements—usually made from glass—lenses or mirrors to gather light or other electromagnetic radiation and bring that light or radiation to a focal point, where the image can be observed, photographed, studied, or sent to a computer. Optical telescopes are used for astronomy and in many non-astronomical instruments, including: theodolites (including transits), spotting scopes, monoculars, binoculars, camera lenses, and spyglasses. There are three main types:
- The refracting telescope, which uses lenses to form an image.
- The reflecting telescope, which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image.
- The catadioptric telescope, which uses mirrors combined with lenses—either in front of the mirror or somewhere within the optical path—to form an image.
Radio telescopes
Radio telescopes are directional radio antennas that often have a parabolic shape. The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed. Multi-element Radio telescopes are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large "virtual" apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes; this process is known as aperture synthesis. As of 2005, the current record array size is many times the width of the Earth, utilizing space-based Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite. Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes. Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which is often used to help study the leftover Big Bang radiation and also can be used to collect radiation when visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars. Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for exterrestrial life. One particularly exciting example is the Wow! signal, recorded in 1977.
X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes
Since X-ray and gamma ray radiation go through most metals and glasses, some X-ray telescopes use Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped "glancing" mirrors made of heavy metals that reflect the rays just a few degrees. The mirrors are usually a section of a rotated parabola and a hyperbola or ellipse. Gamma-ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely, and use coded aperture masks; the pattern of shadows the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image.
X-ray and gamma ray types of telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or high-flying balloons, since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Other types
Notable telescopes
- Anglo-Australian Telescope
- Arecibo Observatory
- Atacama Large Millimeter Array
- Chandra X-ray Observatory
- CHARA (Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy) array
- Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope
- Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900
- Hale telescope 1948, 200" reflector, Mount Palomar
- Hexapod-Telescope
- Hooker Telescope 1917, 100" reflector, Mount Wilson
- Hubble Space Telescope
- IceCube Neutrino Detector
- Isaac Newton Telescope
- Keck telescope
- Leviathan of Parsonstown 1849, 79" reflector, Birr, Ireland
- Lick Observatory
- LIGO
- Lovell Telescope
- McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope
- McMath-Hulbert Observatory (Solar)
- Magdalena Ridge Observatory
- Multiple-Mirror telescope
- Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer
- Overwhelmingly Large Telescope (proposed)
- Parkes Observatory
- Southern African Large Telescope
- Subaru Telescope
- UK Schmidt Telescope
- Very Large Array
- Very Large Telescope
- Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope
- William Herschel Telescope
- XMM-Newton
- Yerkes 1897, 40" largest optical refractor
 | This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. |
See also
- Timeline of telescope technology
- History of telescopes
- Amateur telescope making
- Angular resolution
- Aperture synthesis
- ASCOM open standards for computer control of telescopes
- BOOTES
- Depth of field
- Dynameter
- Eyepiece
- First light
- f-number
- Keyhole problem
- List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
- List of largest optical refracting telescopes
- Microscope
- Nimrud lens
- Remote Telescope Markup Language
- Robotic telescope
- Space observatory
Notes
- ^ omni-optical.com "A Very Short History of the Telescope"
- ^ madehow.com - Inventor Biographies - Jean-Bernard-Léon Foucault Biography (1819-1868)
- ^ Bakich sample pages Chapter 2, Page 3 "John Donavan Strong, a young physicist at the California Institute of Technology, was one of the first to coat a mirror with aluminum. He did it by thermal vacuum evaporation. The first mirror he aluminized, in 1932, is the earliest known example of a telescope mirror coated by this technique."
References
- Contemporary Astronomy - Second Edition, Jay M. Pasachoff, Saunders Colleges Publishing - 1981, ISBN 0-03-057861-2
- Sabra, A. I. & Hogendijk, J. P. (2003), The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, pp. 85-118, ISBN 0262194821
External links
- "The First Telescopes". Part of an exhibit from Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology by the American Institute of Physics
- ESO 100 m telescope
- The Resolution of a Telescope
- Southern African Large Telescope (SALT)
- The Digges telescope of the 1570s
- The Swedish Solar telescope
- History of Refracting Telescope