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[[Image:Baldung Hexen 1508 kol.JPG|thumb|right|[[Hans Baldung Grien]]: Witches. Woodcut 1508]] |
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{{redirect|Witch}} |
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{{Otheruses|Witchcraft (disambiguation)}} |
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'''Witchcraft''', in various historical, anthropological, religious and mythological contexts, is the use of certain kinds of [[supernatural]] or [[Magic (paranormal)|magical]] powers. A '''witch''' is a practitioner of witchcraft. While [[Mythology|mythological]] witches are often supernatural creatures, historically many people have been accused of witchcraft, or have claimed to be witches. Witches have stereotypically, though not exclusively, been women.<ref>Drury, Nevill (1992) ''Dictionary of Mysticism and the Esoteric Traditions'' Revised Edition. Bridport, Dorset: Prism Press. "Witch".</ref><ref name="gibbons">Gibbons, Jenny (1998) [http://www.draeconin.com/database/witchhunt.htm "Recent Developments in the Study of the Great European Witch Hunt"] in ''The Pomegranate'' #5, Lammas 1998.</ref> |
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In [[Early modern period|early modern]] Europe, witchcraft came to be seen as a vast diabolical conspiracy against Christianity, and accusations of witchcraft led to large-scale [[witch-hunt]]s. |
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Academically, the concept of witchcraft is normally treated as a cultural ideology, a means of explaining human misfortune by blaming it either on a supernatural entity or a known person in the community.<ref>Pócs 1999, pp. 9-12.</ref> It is recognised, however, that many of the diabolical stereotypes surrounding witchcraft had evolved out of more benign pre-Christian beliefs regarding spirits and the other-world, and that some of those accused as witches were in fact healers or seers with practices rooted in these same beliefs.<ref>Ginzburg 1990 Part 2, ch. 1</ref><ref>Pócs 1999 pp. 13-14</ref> |
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The term 'witchcraft' has also been applied to cultures outside Europe, to describe similar ideologies of supernatural misfortune and blame, as well as to describe a wide variety of magical and shamanistic practices, generally dealing with [[spirit]]s or [[deity|deities]], the [[afterlife]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and [[ritual]]. |
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From the mid 20th century on, a growing number of people have come to identify with the term "witch", many seeing witchcraft as a religion with possible pre-Christian roots (see below, under [[#Neopaganism|Neopaganism]]).<ref>{{Margot Adler|Adler, Margot]] (1979) ''Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today''. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 45-47, 84-5, 105.</ref> |
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==Types of witch== |
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The terms 'witch' and 'witchcraft' have slightly different meanings in different fields of study. |
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===Social anthropology=== |
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[[Social anthropology|Social-anthropological]] interpretations were pioneered in [[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]]'s 1937 study of 'witchcraft' among the [[Azande]]. By such interpretations, witchcraft accusations are seen as a means of explaining human misfortune and regulating community conflicts, whereby calamities are blamed on someone within the community believed capable of causing harm by supernatural powers. This model identifies a web of functional relationships between ''malefactor'', ''bewitched'', ''witch identifier'' and ''healer''. Those individuals who consciously and verifiably performed some physical 'bewitching' act (positive or negative) are normally termed 'sorcerers' rather than 'witches'; for the remainder of cases, the question of whether the accused person performed such an act or had any awareness of being a 'witch' is generally treated as irrelevant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pócs |first=Éva |authorlink=Éva Pócs |year=1999 |title=Between the Living and the Dead: A perspective on Witches and Seers in the Early Modern Age |pages=p. 9 |location=Budapest |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=963-9116-19-X}}</ref> |
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===Witchcraft historiography=== |
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Historians of European witchcraft have found the anthropological definition difficult to apply to European and British witchcraft, which doesn't match African models. The presence or absence of magical techniques seems to have been of little concern to those participating in witch trials, and some of the accused really had attempted to cause harm by mere ill-wishing.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Keith |authorlink=Keith Thomas |year=1997 |title=Religion and the Decline of Magic |pages=pp. 464-5 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press}}; Ankarloo, Bengt & Henningsen, Gustav (1990) ''Early Modern European Witchcraft: Centres and Peripheries''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1, 14.</ref> |
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As in anthropology, witchcraft is seen by historians as an ideology for explaining misfortune, however this ideology manifested in diverse ways. There were a few varieties of witch in popular belief, and a few types of people accused of witchcraft for different reasons. Richard Kieckhefer places the accused into three categories: Those caught in the act of positive or negative sorcery; well-meaning sorcerers or healers who lost their clients' or the authorities' trust; and those did nothing more than gain the enmity of their neighbours. To these Christina Larner adds a fourth category: those reputed to be witches and surrounded with an aura of witch-beliefs.<ref>Pocs 1999 pp. 9-10</ref> |
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[[Éva Pócs]] in turn identifies three varieties of witch in popular belief: |
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*The 'neighbourhood witch' or 'social witch': a witch who curses a neighbour following some conflict. |
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*The 'magical' or 'sorcerer' witch: either a professional healer, sorcerer, seer or midwife, or a person who has through magic increased their fortune to the perceived detriment of a neighbouring household; due to neighbourly or community rivalries and the ambiguity between positive and negative magic, they can become labelled as 'witches'. |
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*The 'supernatural' or 'night' witch: portrayed in court narratives as a demon appearing in visions and dreams.<ref>Pocs 1999 pp. 10-11</ref> |
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'Neighbourhood witches' are the product of neighbourhood tensions, and are found only in self-sufficient serf village communities where the inhabitants largely rely on each other. Such accusations follow the breaking of some social norm, such as the failure to return a borrowed item, and any person part of the normal social exchange could potentially fall under suspicion. Claims of 'sorcerer' witches and 'supernatural' witches could arise out of social tensions, but not necessarily; the supernatural witch in particular often had nothing to do with communal conflict, but expressed tensions between the human and supernatural worlds, and in Eastern and Southeastern Europe such supernatural witches became an ideology explaining calamities that befell entire communities.<ref>Pocs 1999 pp. 11-12</ref> |
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====Healers, diviners and mediators==== |
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In England, the term 'witch' was not used exclusively to describe malevolent magicians, but could also indicate [[cunning folk]]. "There were a number of interchangable terms for these practitioners, ‘white’, ‘good’, or ‘unbinding’ witches, blessers, wizards, sorcerors, however ‘cunning-man’ and ‘wise-man’ were the most frequent."<ref>Macfarlane 1970 p. 130; also Appendix 2.</ref> The contemporary [[Reginald Scott]] noted “At this day it is indifferent to say in the English tongue, ‘she is a witch’ or ‘she is a wise woman’”.<ref>Scot 1989 V. ix.</ref> While cunning-folk could command a lot of respect, public perceptions of them were often ambivalent and a little fearful, for many were deemed just as capable of harming as of healing.<ref>Wilby, Emma (2005) ''Cunning Folk and Familiar Spirits''. pp. 51-4.</ref> Throughout Europe many such healers and wise men and women were convicted of witchcraft (Éva Pócs' 'sorcerer witches'): many English 'witches' convicted of consorting with demons seem to have been cunning folk whose [[fairy]] [[familiar]]s had been demonised;<ref>Emma Wilby 2005 p. 123; See also Alan Macfarlane 1970 p. 127 who notes how 'white witches' could later be accused as 'black witches'.</ref> many French ''devins-guerisseurs'' were accused of witchcraft;<ref>Monter () ''Witchcraft in France and Switzerland''. Ch. 7: "White versus Black Witchcraft"</ref> and over half the accused witches in Hungary seem to have been healers.<ref>Pócs 1999, p. 12</ref> |
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Some of the healers and diviners historically accused of witchcraft have considered themselves mediators between the mundane and spiritual worlds, roughly equivalent to [[shamanism|shamans]].<ref>As defined by [[Mircea Eliade]] in ''Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstacy'', Bollingen Series LXXVI, Pantheon Books, NY NY 1964, pp.3-7.</ref> Such people described their contacts with fairies, spirits or the dead, often involving out-of-body experiences and travelling through the realms of an 'other-world'.<ref>[[Carlo Ginzburg|Ginzburg, Carlo]] (1990) ''Ecstasies: Deciphering the Witches' Sabbath''. Part 2, Ch. 1.</ref> Beliefs of this nature are implied in the folklore of much of Europe, and were explicitly described by accused witches in central and southern Europe. Repeated themes include participation in processions of the dead or large feasts, often presided over by a female divinity who teaches magic and gives prophecies; and participation in battles against evil spirits, 'vampires' or 'witches' to win fertility and prosperity for the community.<ref>Ginzburg (1990) Part 2, Ch. 1.</ref> |
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===Demonology=== |
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Under the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] religions of the [[Levant]] (primarily [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]]{{Fact|date=July 2008}}), sorcery came to be associated with [[heresy]] and [[apostasy]]. Among the [[Catholics]], [[Protestants]], and [[secular]] leadership of the [[Europe]]an Late [[Medieval]]/[[Early Modern]] period, fears regarding witchcraft rose to fever pitch, and sometimes led to large-scale [[witch-hunt]]s. Throughout this time, it was increasingly believed that Christianity was engaged in an apocalyptic battle against the Devil and his secret army of witches, who had entered into [[Deal with the Devil|diabolical pact]]. In total, tens or hundreds of thousands of people were executed, and others were imprisoned, tortured, banished, and had lands and posessions confiscated. The majority of those accused were women, though in some regions the majority were men.<ref name="gibbons"/><ref>Barstow, Anne Llewellyn (1994) ''Witchcraze: A New History of the European Witch Hunts'' San Francisco:Pandora. p. 23</ref><ref>For a book-length treatment, see Lara Apps and Andrew Gow, ''Male Witches in Early Modern Europe'', Manchester University Press (2003), ISBN 0719057094. Conversely, for repeated use of the term "warlock" to refer to a male witch see Chambers, Robert, ''Domestic Annals of Scotland'', Edinburgh, 1861; and Sinclair, George, ''Satan's Invisible World Discovered'',Edinburgh, 1871.</ref> Accusations of witchcraft were frequently combined with other charges of heresy against such groups as the [[Cathars]] and [[Waldensians]]. |
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The [[Malleus Maleficarum]], a famous witch-hunting manual used by both Roman Catholics and Protestants, outlines how to identify a witch, what makes a woman more likely to be a witch, how to put a witch to trial and how to punish a witch. The book defines a witch as evil and typically female. |
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In the modern Western world, witchcraft accusations have often accompanied the [[Satanic Ritual Abuse]] [[hysteria]]. Such accusations are a counterpart to [[blood libel]] of various kinds, which may be found throughout history across the globe. |
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===Pejorative use=== |
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Members of some religions have applied the term witchcraft in a pejorative sense to refer to all magical or ritual practices other than those sanctioned by their own doctrines – although this has become less common, at least in the [[Western world]]. According to some religious [[doctrine]]s, all forms of magic are labelled witchcraft, and are either proscribed or treated as [[superstition|superstitious]]. Such religions consider their own ritual practices to be not at all magical, but rather simply variations of [[prayer]]. |
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==Alleged practices== |
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[[Image:John William Waterhouse - Magic Circle.JPG|thumb|"Magic Circle", 1886. John William Waterhouse]] |
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Practices to which the witchcraft label have historically been applied are those which influence another person's mind, body or property against his or her will, or which are believed, by the person doing the labelling, to undermine the social or religious order. Some modern commentators consider the malefic nature of witchcraft to be a Christian projection. The concept of a magic-worker influencing another person's body or property against his or her will was clearly present in many cultures, as there are traditions in both folk magic and religious magic that have the purpose of countering malicious magic or identifying malicious magic users. Many examples can be found in ancient texts, such as those from [[Egypt]] and [[Babylonia]], where malicious magic is believed to have the power to influence the mind, body or possessions, malicious magic users can become a credible cause for disease, sickness in animals, bad luck, sudden death, impotence and other such misfortunes. Witchcraft of a more benign and socially acceptable sort may then be employed to turn the malevolence aside, or identify the supposed evil-doer so that punishment may be carried out. The folk magic used to identify or protect against malicious magic users is often indistinguishable from that used by the witches themselves. |
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There has also existed in popular belief the concept of [[white witch]]es and white witchcraft, which is strictly benevolent. Many neopagan witches strongly identify with this concept, and profess [[ethical code]]s that prevent them from performing magic on a person without their request. |
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Where belief in malicious magic practices exists, such practitioners are typically forbidden by law as well as hated and feared by the general populace, while beneficial magic is tolerated or even accepted wholesale by the people – even if the orthodox establishment objects to it. |
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===Spellcasting=== |
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{{main|Magic (paranormal)}} |
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Probably the most obvious characteristic of a witch was the ability to cast a [[spell]], a "spell" being the word used to signify the means employed to accomplish a magical action. A spell could consist of a set of words, a formula or verse, or a ritual action, or any combination of these.<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary, the Compact Edition'', Oxford University Press, p. 2955, 1971</ref> Spells traditionally were cast by many methods, such as by the inscription of [[runes]] or [[sigil (magic)|sigils]] on an object to give it magical powers, by the immolation or binding of a wax or clay image ([[poppet]]) of a person to affect him or her magically, by the recitation of [[incantations]], by the performance of physical [[rituals]], by the employment of magical [[herbs]] as amulets or potions, by gazing at mirrors, swords or other specula ([[scrying]]) for purposes of divination, and by many other means.<ref>for instance, see Luck, Georg, ''Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds; a Collection of Ancient Texts'', Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006; also Kittredge, G. L., ''Witchcraft in Old and New England'', New York: Russell & Russell, 1929, 1957, 1958; and Davies, Owen, ''Witchcraft, Magic and Culture, 1736-1951'', Manchester University Press, 1999</ref> |
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===Conjuring the dead=== |
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Strictly speaking, "[[necromancy]]" is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the dead for [[divination]] or [[prophecy]] - although the term has also been applied to raising the dead for other purposes. The Biblical [[Witch of Endor]] is supposed to have performed it (1 Sam. 28), and it is among the witchcraft practices condemned by [[Ælfric of Eynsham]]:<ref> |
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{{citation|first=Sarah|last=Semple|journal=Anglo-Saxon England|title=Illustrations of damnation in late Anglo-Saxon manuscripts|year=2003|volume=32|pages=231-245}} |
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</ref><ref>{{citation|first=Sarah|last=Semple|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/125012?seq=9|title= |
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A Fear of the Past: The Place of the Prehistoric Burial Mound in the Ideology of Middle and Later Anglo-Saxon England|journal=World Archaeology|vol= 30|year= 1998|page=117}}</ref><ref>{{citation|first=J.C.|last=Pope|title=Homilies of Aefric: a supplementary collection (Early English Text Society 259)|publisher=Oxford University Press|volume=I|year=1967|pages=167-168}}</ref><ref> |
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{{citation|first=J.C.|last=Pope|title=Homilies of Aefric: a supplementary collection (Early English Text Society 260)|publisher=Oxford University Press| volume=II|year=1968|page=179}}</ref> |
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"''Witches still go to cross-roads and to heathen burials with their delusive magic and call to the devil; and he comes to them in the likeness of the man that is buried there, as if he arise from death.''"<ref>{{citation|first=A.|last=Meaney|title=Aelfric and Idolatry|journal=Journal of Religious History| |
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volume=13|year=1984|pages=119-128}}, source of English translation from Anglo-Saxon</ref> |
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==By location== |
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===Europe=== |
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{{main|European witchcraft|Witch-hunt}} |
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[[Image:Sejdmen.jpg|right|250px|thumb|During the Christianisation of Norway, King [[Olaf Trygvasson]] had male [[völva]]s (shamans) tied up and left on a [[skerry]] at [[tide|ebb]].]] |
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[[Image:Persecution of witches.jpg|thumb|250px|Persecution of witches.]] |
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The familiar witch of [[folklore]] and popular [[superstition]] is a combination of numerous influences. The characterisation of the witch as an evil magic user developed over time. |
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Early converts to Christianity looked to Christian clergy to work magic more effectively than the old methods under Roman paganism, and Christianity provided a methodology involving saints and relics, similar to the gods and amulets of the Pagan world. As Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe its concern with magic lessened.<ref>Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. (2000) [http://www.geocities.com/eildontree/reading/christianwitch.html "The Emergence of the Christian Witch"] in ''History Today'', Nov, 2000</ref> |
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The Protestant Christian explanation for witchcraft, such as those typified in the confessions of the [[Pendle Witches]], commonly involve a [[diabolical pact]] or at least an appeal to the intervention of the spirits of evil. The witches or wizards addicted to such practices were alleged to reject [[Jesus]] and the [[sacrament]]s, observe "[[Sabbath (witchcraft)|the witches' sabbath]]" (performing infernal rites which often parodied the [[Mass]] or other sacraments of the Church), pay Divine honour to [[Satan|the Prince of Darkness]], and, in return, receive from him [[preternatural]] powers. It was a folkloric belief that a Devil's Mark, like the brand on cattle, was placed upon a witches skin by the devil to signify that this pact had been made. <ref> Drymon, M.M. Disguised as the Devil: How Lyme Disease Created Witches and Changed History, 2008.</ref> Witches were most often characterized as women. Witches disrupted the societal institutions, and more specifically, marriage. It was believed that a witch often joined a pact with the devil to gain powers to deal with infertility, immense fear for her children's well-being, or revenge against a lover. |
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The Church and European society was not always so zealous in hunting witches and blaming them for bad occurrences. [[Saint Boniface]] declared in the 8th century that belief in the existence of witches was un-Christian. The emperor [[Charlemagne]] decreed that the burning of supposed witches was a pagan custom that would be punished by the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]]. In 820 the [[Bishop of Lyon]] and others repudiated the belief that witches could make bad weather, fly in the night, and change their shape. This denial was accepted into [[Canon law]] until it was reversed in later centuries as the [[witch-hunt]] gained force. Other rulers such as [[Coloman of Hungary|King Coloman of Hungary]] declared that witch-hunts should cease because witches (more specifically, [[striga]]s) do not exist. |
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The Church did not invent the idea of witchcraft as a potentially harmful force whose practitioners should be put to death. This idea is commonplace in pre-Christian religions. According to the scholar Max Dashu, the concept of medieval witchcraft contained many of its elements even before the emergence of Christianity. These can be found in [[Bacchanalia]]s, especially in the time when they were led by priestess [[Paculla Annia]] (188-186). |
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However, even at a later date, not all witches were assumed to be harmful practicers of the craft. In England, the provision of this curative magic was the job of a [[witch doctor]], also known as a [[cunning folk|cunning man]], [[white witch]], or [[wiseman]]. The term "witch doctor" was in use in England before it came to be associated with Africa. [[Toad doctors]] were also credited with the ability to undo evil witchcraft. (Other folk magicians had their own purviews. [[Girdle-measurers]] specialised in diagnosing ailments caused by fairies, while magical cures for more mundane ailments, such as burns or toothache, could be had from [[charmer]]s.) |
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:"In the north of England, the superstition lingers to an almost inconceivable extent. Lancashire abounds with witch-doctors, a set of quacks, who pretend to cure diseases inflicted by the devil... The witch-doctor alluded to is better known by the name of the cunning man, and has a large practice in the counties of Lincoln and Nottingham."<ref>[[Charles Mackay|Mackay, C.]], ''[[Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds]]''</ref> |
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[[Image:Goya - Caprichos (68).jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Francisco Goya]]'s ''[[Los Caprichos]]'': ''¡Linda maestra!'' ("The Spoils: Beautiful Teacher!") - witches heading to a Sabbath]] |
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Such "cunning-folk" did not refer to themselves as witches and objected to the accusation that they were such. Records from the [[Middle Ages]], however, make it appear that it was, quite often, not entirely clear to the populace whether a given practitioner of magic was a witch or one of the cunning-folk. In addition, it appears that much of the populace was willing to approach either of these groups for healing magic and divination. When a person was known to be a witch, the populace would still seek to employ their healing skills; however, as was not the case with cunning-folk, members of the general population would also hire witches to curse their enemies. The important distinction is that there are records of the populace reporting alleged witches to the authorities as such, whereas cunning-folk were not so incriminated; they were more commonly prosecuted for accusing the innocent or defrauding people of money. |
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The long-term result of this amalgamation of distinct types of magic-worker into one is the considerable present-day confusion as to what witches actually did, whether they harmed or healed, what role (if any) they had in the community, whether they can be identified with the "witches" of other cultures and even whether they existed as anything other than a projection. Present-day beliefs about the witches of history attribute to them elements of the folklore witch, the [[charmer]], the cunning man or wise woman, the diviner and the [[Astrology|astrologer]]. |
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Powers typically attributed to European witches include turning food poisonous or inedible, flying on broomsticks or pitchforks, casting spells, cursing people, making livestock ill and crops fail, and creating fear and local chaos. |
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===North America === |
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[[Image:Matteson Examination of a Witch.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Examination of a Witch'' by [[T. H. Matteson]], inspired by the Salem trials]] |
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The most famous witchcraft incident In the [[British North America]] were the witch trials that took place in [[Salem, Massachusetts]]. The [[Salem witch trials]] were a series of hearings before local magistrates followed by county court trials to prosecute people accused of witchcraft in [[Essex County, Massachusetts|Essex]], [[Suffolk County, Massachusetts|Suffolk]], and [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex]] Counties of colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693. Over 150 people were arrested and imprisoned, with even more accused who were not formally pursued by the authorities. The two courts convicted twenty-nine people of the capital felony of witchcraft. Nineteen of the accused, fourteen women and five men, were hanged. One man who refused to enter a plea was crushed to death under heavy stones in an attempt to force him to do so. At least five more of the accused died in prison. |
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Despite being generally known as the "Salem" witch trials, the preliminary hearings in 1692 were conducted in a variety of towns across the province: Salem Village, Ipswich, Andover, as well as Salem Town, Massachusetts. The best-known trials were conducted by the Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1692 in Salem Town. All twenty-six who went to trial before this court were convicted. The four sessions of the Superior Court of Judicature in 1693, held in Salem Town, but also in Ipswich, Boston, and Charlestown, produced only three convictions in the thirty-one witchcraft trials it conducted. Likewise, alleged witchcraft was not isolated to New England. In 1706 [[Grace Sherwood]] the "Witch of Pungo" was imprisoned for the crime in [[Princess Anne County, Virginia]]. |
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===Asia=== |
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{{main|Asian witchcraft}} |
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====Ancient Near East==== |
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The belief in sorcery and its practice seem to have been widespread in the past. Both in ancient [[Egypt]] and in [[Babylonia]] it played a conspicuous part, as existing records plainly show. It will be sufficient to quote a short section from the [[Code of Hammurabi]] (about 2000 B.C.). It is there prescribed, |
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:''If a man has put a spell upon another man and it is not justified, he upon whom the spell is laid shall go to the holy river; into the holy river shall he plunge. If the holy river overcome him and he is drowned, the man who put the spell upon him shall take possession of his house. If the holy river declares him innocent and he remains unharmed the man who laid the spell shall be put to death. He that plunged into the river shall take possession of the house of him who laid the spell upon him.''<ref>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'' [http://www.bible-history.com/isbe/enwiki/w/WITCH%3B+WITCHCRAFT/ article on Witchcraft], last accessed [[31 March]] [[2006]]. There is some discrepancy between translations; compare with that given in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm article on Witchcraft] (accessed [[31 March]] [[2006]]), and the [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/hamframe.htm L. W. King translation] (accessed [[31 March]] [[2006]])</ref> |
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====Hebrew Bible==== |
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In the [[Hebrew Bible]] references to sorcery are frequent, and the strong condemnations of such practices found there do not seem to be based so much upon the supposition of [[fraud]] as upon the [[abomination]] of the magic in itself. In the [[Authorized King James Version|King James Bible]] the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words כשף (''kashaph'' or ''kesheph'') and קסם (''qesem'') and the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] φαρμακεια (''pharmakeia'') are translated 'witch', 'witchcraft' or 'witchcrafts'.<ref>{{sourcebible|Nahum|3|4}}; {{sourcebible|1 Samuel|15|23}}; {{sourcebible|2 Chronicles|33|6}}; {{sourcebible|2 Kings|9|22}}; {{sourcebible|Deuteronomy|18|10}}; {{sourcebible|Exodus|22|18}}; {{sourcebible|Galatians|5|20}}</ref> |
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Verses such as [[Deuteronomy]] 18:11-12 and [[Exodus]] 22:18 "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live" provided scriptural justification for Christian [[witch hunt]]ers in the early [[Modern Age]] (see [[Christian views on witchcraft]]). The word "witch" is a translation of the Hebrew ''kashaph'', "sorcerer". As such a closer translation would be "one who uses magic to harm others". |
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The Bible provides some evidence that these commandments were enforced under the Hebrew kings: |
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<blockquote>"And Saul disguised himself, and put on other raiment, and he went, and two men with him, and they came to the woman by night: and he said, I pray thee, divine unto me by the [[familiar spirit]], and bring me him up, whom I shall name unto thee. And the woman said unto him, Behold, thou knowest what Saul hath done, how he hath cut off those that have familiar spirits, and the wizards, out of the land: wherefore then layest thou a snare for my life, to cause me to die?"<ref>I Samuel 28</ref> (The Hebrew verb "Hichrit" (הכרית) translated in the [[Authorized King James Version|King James]] as "cut off", can also be translated as "kill wholesale" or "exterminate") </blockquote> |
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====New Testament==== |
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:''See also: [[Christian views on witchcraft]]'' |
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The [[New Testament]] condemns the practice as an abomination, just as the Old Testament had ([[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] 5:20, compared with [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 21:8; 22:15; and [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 8:9; 13:6). The word in most New Testament translations is "sorcerer"/"[[sorcery]]" rather than "witch"/"witchcraft". |
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====Judaism==== |
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[[Judaism|Jewish]] law views the practice of witchcraft as being laden with [[idolatry]] and/or [[necromancy]]; both being serious theological and practical offenses in Judaism. According to [[Conservadox Judaism|Traditional Judaism]], it is acknowledged that while magic exists, it is forbidden to practice it on the basis that it usually involves the worship of other gods. Rabbis of the Talmud also condemned magic when it produced something other than illusion, giving the example of two men who use magic to pick cucumbers (Sanhedrin 67a). The one who creates the illusion of picking cucumbers should not be condemned, only the one who actually picks the cucumbers through magic. However, some of the Rabbis practiced "magic" themselves. For instance, Rabbah created a person and sent him to Rabbi Zera, and Rabbi Hanina and Rabbi Oshaia studied every Sabbath evening together and created a small calf to eat (Sanhedrin 65b). In these cases, the "magic" was seen more as divine miracles (i.e., coming from [[God]] rather than pagan gods) than as witchcraft. |
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Judaism also makes clear that witchcraft while always forbidden to [[Jews]], may be performed by [[Gentiles]] outside the holy land (i.e. [[Israel]]).{{Fact|date=September 2007}} |
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====Islam==== |
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Divination and [[Magic (paranormal)#In Islam|Magic in Islam]] encompass a wide range of practices, including [[black magic]], warding off the [[evil eye]], the production of [[amulets]] and other magical equipment, conjuring, casting lots, [[astrology]] and [[physiognomy]]. Muslims do commonly believe in magic ([[Sihr]]) and explicitly forbid its practice. Sihr translates from Arabic as sorcery or black magic. The best known reference to magic in Islam is the [[Surah]] [[Al-Falaq]] (meaning dawn or daybreak), which is a prayer to ward off black magic. <blockquote>Say: I seek refuge with the Lord of the Dawn From the mischief of created things; From the mischief of Darkness as it overspreads; From the mischief of those who practise secret arts; And from the mischief of the envious one as he practises envy. (Quran 113:1-5, translation by YusufAli)</blockquote> |
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Many Muslims believe that the devils taught sorcery to mankind: <blockquote>And they follow that which the devils falsely related against the kingdom of [[Solomon]]. Solomon disbelieved not; but the devils disbelieved, teaching mankind sorcery and that which was revealed to the two angels in Babel, Harut and Marut.... And surely they do know that he who trafficketh therein will have no (happy) portion in the Hereafter; and surely evil is the price for which they sell their souls, if they but knew. (al-Qur'an 2:102)</blockquote> |
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However, whereas performing miracles in Islamic thought and belief is reserved for only Messengers and Prophets; supernatural acts are also believed to be performed by Awliyaa - the spiritually accomplished. Disbelief in the miracles of the Prophets is considered an act of disbelief; belief in the miracles of any given pious individual is not. Neither are regarded as magic, but as signs of Allah at the hands of those close to Him that occur by His will and His alone. |
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Muslim practitioners commonly seek the help of the [[Genie|Jinn]] (singular--jinni) in magic. It is a common belief that jinn can possess a human, thus requiring [[Exorcism#Exorcism in Islam|Exorcism]]. (The belief in jinn is part of the Muslim faith. [[Imam Muslim]] narrated the Prophet said: "Allah created the angels from light, created the jinn from the pure flame of fire, and Adam from that which was described to you (i.e., the clay.)") To cast off the jinn from the body of the possessed, the "ruqya," which is from the Prophet's [[sunnah]] is used. The ruqya contains verses of the [[Qur'an]] as well as prayers which are specifically targeted against demons. The knowledge of which verses of the [[Qur'an]] to use in what way is what is considered "magic knowledge". |
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Students of the history of religion have linked several magical practises in Islam with pre-islamic Turkish and East African customs. Most notable of these customs is the [[Zar (religious custom)|Zar Ceremony]].<ref>Geister, Magier und Muslime. Dämonenwelt und Geisteraustreibung im Islam. Kornelius Hentschel, Diederichs 1997, Germany</ref><ref>Magic and Divination in Early Islam (The Formation of the Classical Islamic World) by Emilie Savage-Smith (Ed.), Ashgate Publishing 2004</ref> |
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In 2006 [[Fawza Falih|Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali]], a citizen of Saudi Arabia, was condemned to death for practicing witchcraft.<ref>BBC News, "Pleas for condemned Saudi 'witch'", 14th February 2008[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/7244579.stm]</ref> |
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===Africa=== |
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Africans have a wide range of views of traditional religions.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4705201.stm Is witchcraft alive in Africa?], BBC News</ref> African Christians typically accept Christian dogma as do their counterparts in [[Latin America]] and Asia. The term [[witch doctor]], often attributed to Zulu ''[[inyanga]]'', has been misconstrued to mean "a healer who uses witchcraft" rather than its original meaning of "one who diagnoses and cures maladies caused by witches". Combining Roman Catholic beliefs and practices and traditional [[West Africa]]n religious beliefs and practices are several syncretic religions in [[the Americas]], including [[Vodou]], [[Obeah]], [[Candomblé]], [[Quimbanda]] and [[Santería]]. |
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In Southern African traditions, there are three classifications of somebody who uses magic. The ''[[thakathi]]'' is usually improperly translated into English as "witch", and is a spiteful person who operates in secret to harm others. The ''[[sangoma]]'' is a diviner, somewhere on a par with a [[fortune teller]], and is employed in detecting illness, predicting a person's future (or advising them on which path to take), or identifying the guilty party in a crime. She also practices some degree of medicine. The ''inyanga'' is often translated as "witch doctor" (though many Southern Africans resent this implication, as it perpetuates the mistaken belief that a "witch doctor" is in some sense a ''practitioner'' of malicious magic). The ''inyanga'''s job is to heal illness and injury and provide customers with magical items for everyday use. Of these three categories the ''thakatha'' is almost exclusively female, the ''sangoma'' is usually female, and the ''inyanga'' is almost exclusively male. |
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In some [[Central Africa]]n areas, malicious magic users are believed by locals to be the source of [[terminal illness]] such as [[AIDS]] and [[cancer]]. In such cases, various methods are used to rid the person from the bewitching spirit, occasionally [[Physical abuse]] and [[Psychological abuse]]. Children may be accused of being witches, for example a young niece may be blamed for the illness of a relative. Most of these cases of abuse go unreported since the members of the society that witness such abuse are too afraid of being accused of being accomplices. It is also believed that witchcraft can be transmitted to children by feeding. Parents discourage their children from interacting with people believed to be witches. |
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As of 2006, between 25,000 and 50,000 children in [[Kinshasa]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], had been accused of witchcraft and thrown out of their homes.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/feb/12/theobserver.worldnews11 Thousands of child 'witches' turned on to the streets to starve]</ref> On April, 2008, Kinshasa, the police arrested 14 suspected victims (of [[penis]] snatching) and [[sorcerers]] accused of using black magic or witchcraft to steal (make disappear) or shrink men's penises to extort cash for cure, amid a wave of panic.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/oddlyEnoughNews/idUSN2319603620080423?feedType=RSS&feedName=oddlyEnoughNews&rpc=22&sp=true Penis theft panic hits city..], Reuters</ref> Arrests were made in an effort to avoid bloodshed seen in [[Ghana]] a decade ago, when 12 alleged penis snatchers were beaten to death by mobs.<ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9701/18/briefs/ghana.penis.html ''7 killed in Ghana over 'penis-snatching' episodes''], CNN, January 18, 1997.</ref> It was reported on May 21, 2008 that in [[Kenya]] a mob had burnt to death at least 11 people accused of witchcraft.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL21301127 Mob burns to death 11 Kenyan "witches"]</ref> In [[Tanzania]] in 2008, President [[Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete|Kikwete]] publicly condemned [[witchdoctor]]s for killing [[Albinism|albinos]] for their body parts which are thought to bring good luck. 25 albinos have been murdered since March 2007.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7518049.stm Living in fear: Tanzania's albinos], BBC News</ref> |
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===Russia=== |
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Russia, and its surrounding area for example, have, much like other cultures, their own witchcraft and superstitious tales. And again, much like other societies, these tales clash with those of the church and traditional religious thoughts. However, today, acceptance of healing practices in contemporary Russian folklore are common. By looking at the different types of superstitions then understanding their purposes we can comprehend their impact on the people and the church and can better understand the culture of Russia and its folklore. |
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Casual encounters are ones of surprise and unexpectedness and puts the character at the mercy of the supernatural being. The ritual encounter however, is a more planned event, where the individual is the subject and he or she knows beforehand the kind of experience they will take part in. The Russian word for witch, ведьма (ved'ma), shows exactly that (the literal translation means "The one who knows"). Russia, as well as many other cultures, produces tales with both encounters. These parts of folklore including omens, guardian spirits, and fate – all have little to do with the [[Eastern Orthodox Christian theology|eastern orthodox religion]] yet seem to appear in much of the folklore of the 19th century. Visual omens, often in dreams, are well-known, including a gloved man indicating death, fish predicting marital luck, and children’s games foretelling marital life, fertility and even wars. Passed down are tales of how other indicators, include the crying of a baby that is not within sight, the hammering of nails off in the distance, and also ringing of the ears, can foretell different things.<ref> See also Ryan, W.F. ''The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia'', Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999</ref> |
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==Neopaganism== |
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Modern practices identified by their practitioners as "witchcraft" have arisen in the twentieth century which may be broadly subsumed under the heading of [[Neopaganism]]. However, as forms of Neopaganism can be quite different and have very different origins, these representations can vary considerably despite the shared name. |
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===Wicca=== |
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{{main|Wicca}} |
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During the 20th century interest in witchcraft in [[English language|English-speaking]] and European countries began to increase, inspired particularly by [[Margaret Murray]]'s theory of a pan-European witch-cult originally published in 1921, since discredited by further careful historical research.<ref>Rose, Elliot, ''A Razor for a Goat'', [[University of Toronto Press]], 1962. Hutton, Ronald, ''The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles'', [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge, Mass.]]: Blackwell Publishers, 1993. Hutton, Ronald, ''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1999</ref> Interest was intensified, however, by [[Gerald Gardner]]'s claim in 1954 in ''Witchcraft Today'' that a form of witchcraft still existed in [[England]]. The truth of Gardner's claim is now disputed too, with different historians offering evidence for<ref>{{cite book |last=Heselton |first=Philip |authorlink=Philip Heselton |title=Wiccan Roots}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Heselton |first=Philip |authorlink=Philip Heselton |title=Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration}}</ref> or against<ref>Kelly, Aidan, ''Crafting the Art of Magic'', [[Llewellyn Worldwide|Llewellyn Publications]], 1991</ref><ref>Hutton, Ronald, ''Triumph of the Moon'', Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ruickbie |first=Leo |authorlink=Leo Ruickbie |title=Witchcraft Out of the Shadows}}</ref> the religion's existence prior to Gardner. |
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The Wicca that Gardner initially taught was a witchcraft religion having a lot in common with Margaret Murray's hypothetically posited cult of the 1920s.<ref>Murray, Margaret A., ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'',Oxford University Press, 1921</ref> Indeed Murray wrote an introduction to Gardner's ''Witchcraft Today'', in effect putting her stamp of approval on it. Wicca is now practised as a religion of an [[Initiation|initiatory]] [[secret society]] nature with positive ethical principles, organised into autonomous [[coven]]s and led by a High Priesthood. There is also a large "Eclectic Wiccan" movement of individuals and groups who share key Wiccan beliefs but have no initiatory connection or affiliation with traditional Wicca. Wiccan writings and ritual show borrowings from a number of sources including 19th and 20th century [[ceremonial magic]], the medieval grimoire known as the [[Key of Solomon]], [[Aleister Crowley]]'s [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] and pre-Christian religions.<ref>Hutton, R.,''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'', Oxford University Press, pp. 205-252, 1999</ref><ref>Kelly, A.A., ''Crafting the Art of Magic, Book I: a History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939-1964'', Minnesota: Llewellyn Publications, 1991</ref><ref>Valiente, D., ''The Rebirth of Witchcraft'', London: Robert Hale, pp. 35-62, 1989</ref> Both men and women are equally termed "witches." They practice a form of [[Duotheism|duotheistic]] [[universalism]]. |
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Since Gardner's death in 1964 the Wicca that he claimed he was initiated into has attracted many initiates, becoming the largest of the various witchcraft traditions in the Western world, and has influenced various occult movements and groups. In particular it has inspired a large movement of "sole practitioners", who are not initiated into the original lineage but live according to practices and beliefs that are in keeping with the original tenets of the religion, most notably the "Three Laws". |
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=== Stregheria === |
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{{main|Stregheria}} |
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Stregheria is an [[Italy|Italian]] witchcraft religion popularised in the 1980s by [[Raven Grimassi]], who claims that it evolved within the ancient [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan religion]] of Italian peasants who worked under the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] upper classes. Other scholars{{Who|date=July 2008}} argue that it is a newly invented religion largely based upon [[Charles Godfrey Leland]]'s ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches]]'', which was also used as a basis for Wicca. |
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Leland's account depicts the followers of Italian witchcraft as worshipping the Goddess [[Diana]], along with her brother [[Dianus]]/[[Lucifer]], and their daughter [[Aradia]]. Leland's witches do not see Lucifer as the evil [[Satan]] of Christian myth, but a benevolent god of the sun and moon. |
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The ritual format of contemporary Stregheria is roughly similar to that of other [[Neo-Pagan]] witchcraft religions such as [[Wicca]]. The [[pentagram]] is the most common symbol of religious identity. Most followers celebrate a series of eight festivals equivalent to the Wiccan [[Wheel of the Year]], though others follow the ancient Roman festivals. An emphasis is placed on [[ancestor worship]]. |
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=== Feri Tradition === |
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{{main|Feri Tradition}} |
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The Feri Tradition is a modern witchcraft practice founded by [[Victor Anderson (poet)|Victor Anderson]] and his wife Cora. It is an ecstatic tradition with strong emphasis is placed on sensual experience and awareness, including sexual mysticism, which is not limited to heterosexual expression. |
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Most practitioners worship three main deities; the Star Goddess, and two divine twins, one of whom is the blue God. They believe that there are three parts to the human soul, a belief taken from Huna. |
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===Judeo-Paganism=== |
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Some [[Neopagan]]s study and practice forms of [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] based on a [[syncretism]] between classical [[Kabbalah|Jewish mysticism]] and modern witchcraft. (See "The Witches Qabalah", in the list of references below.) These practitioners tend to identify with [[Judeo-Paganism]] (also known as Jewish Paganism), and/or practice Jewitchery, or Jewish Witchcraft. These individuals and groups either borrow from existing Jewish magical traditions or reconstruct rituals based on Judaism and NeoPaganism. Several references on these subjects include [[Ellen Cannon Reed]]'s book "The Witches Qabala: The Pagan Path and the Tree of Life" and "The Hebrew Goddess", by [[Raphael Patai]]. |
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===Reconstructive=== |
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{{main|Polytheistic reconstructionism}} |
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The basis of various historical forms of witchcraft find their roots in pre-Christian cultural practices. There has been a strong movement to recreate pre-Christian traditions where the old forms have been lost for various reasons, including practices such as [[Divination]], [[Seid]] and various forms of [[Shamanism]]. There have been a number of pagan practitioners such as [[Paul Huson]]<ref>[[Paul Huson|Huson, Paul]] ''[[Mastering Witchcraft]]: a Practical Guide for Witches, Warlocks, and Covens'', New York: G.P.Putnams Sons, 1970.</ref> claiming inheritance to non-Gardnerian traditions as well.<ref>Clifton, Chas S., ''Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America'', Lanham, MD: Altamira, 2006, ISBN 0759102023 </ref> |
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===Contemporary Witchcraft=== |
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{{main|Contemporary Witchcraft}} |
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Contemporary witchcraft in Western cultures is a spiritual and magical practice, which may have strong religious elements to it. Many modern witches see themselves as reviving ancient practices, mostly of European and British origin. The religious beliefs of witches can vary; many are strongly influenced by [[Wicca]] and [[Neopaganism]], while others hold Abrahamic or other religious views, or none at all. Contemporary witchcraft often involves the use of divination, [[magic (paranormal)|magic]],(usually spelt Magick) and working with the [[classical elements]] and unseen forces such as spirits and the forces of nature. The practice of natural medicine, [[folk medicine]], and spiritual healing is also common, as are alternative medical and [[New Age]] healing practices. |
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Some schools of modern witchcraft, such as traditional forms of Wicca, are secretive and operate as [[initiation|initiatory]] [[secret society|secret societies]]. |
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== Witches in popular culture == |
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Especially in media aimed at children (such as [[fairy tale]]s), witches are often depicted as wicked old women with wrinkled skin and [[pointy hat]]s, clothed in black or purple, with [[wart]]s on their noses and sometimes long [[claw]]-like fingernails. Like the [[Three Witches]] from ''[[Macbeth]]'', they are often portrayed as concocting potions in large cauldrons. Witches typically ride through the air on a [[broomstick]] as in the [[Harry Potter]] universe or in more modern spoof versions, a [[vacuum cleaner]] as in the [[Hocus Pocus (film)|Hocus Pocus]] universe. They are often accompanied by [[black cats]]. One of the most famous recent depictions is the [[Wicked Witch of the West]], in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]''. |
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[[Image:WitchHat.svg|170px|Stereo-typical witch hat]] |
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[[Image:Cauldron.svg|140px|Cauldron - another connotation attributed by popular culture]] |
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Witches may also be depicted as essentially good, as in [[Terry Pratchett|Terry Pratchett's]] ''[[Discworld]]'' novels, or the television show [[Charmed]]. Following the movie ''[[The Craft (film)|The Craft]]'', popular fictional depictions of witchcraft have increasingly drawn from [[Wicca]]n practices, portraying witchcraft as having a religious basis and witches as humans of normal appearance. |
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==See also== |
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{{multicol}} |
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*[[Baba Yaga]] |
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*[[Balthasar Bekker]] |
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*[[Catalan mythology about witches]] |
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*[[Circe]] |
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*[[Kalku]] |
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*[[Alice Young]] |
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{{multicol-break}} |
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*[[List of fictional witches]] |
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*[[List of magical terms and traditions]] |
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*[[Lysa Hora (folklore)]] |
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*[[Madonna Oriente]] |
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*[[Magician (fantasy)]] |
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*[[Osculum infame]] |
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{{multicol-break}} |
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*[[Séance]] |
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*[[Ouija board]] |
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*[[Walpurgis Night]] |
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*[[Warlock]] |
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*[[Witchcraft in Native American mythology]] |
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*[[Witch (etymology)]] |
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*[[Witch-hunt]] |
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*[[Appalachian Granny Magic]] |
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*[[Witchcraft Act]] |
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{{multicol-end}} |
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== Notes == |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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===Further references=== |
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*[[Lizanne Henderson]], ‘Witch-Hunting and Witch Belief in the Gàidhealtachd’’, Witchcraft and Belief in Early Modern Scotland Eds. Julian Goodare, Lauren Martin and Joyce Miller. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007 |
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*Lindquest, Galina. Conjuring Hope: Healing and Magic in Contemporary Russia. Vol. 1. New York: Berghahn Books, 2006. |
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*Pentikainen, Juha. "Marnina Takalo as an Individual." C. Jstor. 26 Feb. 2007. |
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*Pentikainen, Juha. "The Supernatural Experience." F. Jstor. 26 Feb. 2007. |
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*Moore, Henrietta L. and Todd Sanders 2001. Magical Interpretations, Material Realities: Modernity, Witchcraft and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa. London: Routledge. |
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*Worobec, Caroline. "Witchcraft Beliefs and Practices in Prerevolutionary Russia and Ukrainian Villages." Jstor. 27 Feb. 2007. |
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==External links== |
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{{commonscat|Witches}} |
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*[http://www.witchvox.com The Witches' Voice] 1997-2007 The Witches' Voice Inc |
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*[http://personalwebs.oakland.edu/~dow/courses/an271/bswmr.html Bibliography for the Study of Magic Witchcraft and Religion, James Dow, Professor of Anthropology at Oakland University] |
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* [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/TrevorRoper0256/Crisis17thC/PDFs/0098_Pt04_Chap3.pdf Some historical notes on the witch-craze from historian Trevor Roper] |
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*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=325263 Kabbalah On Witchcraft - A Jewish view (Audio)] chabad.org |
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*[http://www.spiritual.com.au/witchcraft.html Over One Hundred Free Articles On Witchcraft] |
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*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=220&letter=W&search=Witchcraft Jewish Encyclopedia: Witchcraft] |
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm Witchcraft in the Catholic Encyclopedia on (New Advent)] |
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*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17203 Witchcraft and Devil Lore in the Channel Islands], 1886, by John Linwood Pitts, from [[Project Gutenberg]] |
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*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17209 A Treatise of Witchcraft], 1616, by Alexander Roberts, from Project Gutenberg |
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*[http://www.hedgewytchery.com/indexb.html] Traditional British witchcraft site. |
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*[http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/Research/witches/ University of Edinburgh's Scottish witchcraft database] |
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