History of Hebrew grammar

This article is about the grammar of Modern Hebrew. For information on the various historical forms of Hebrew, see Hebrew language.

Hebrew grammar is partly analytical, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than morphological cases. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of the verbs, the declension of prepositions (i.e. with pronominal suffixes), and the genitive construct of nouns as well as the formation of the plural of nouns and adjectives.

Note on the representation of Hebrew examples

Because this article is intended to be useful to non-Hebrew speakers, all examples of Hebrew are represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). IPA is a system of phonetic notation that provides a standardized, accurate and unique way of representing the sounds of any spoken language. However, since the phonemes /ħ, ʕ/ are pronounced by some speakers, while others collapse them into the phonemes /χ, ʔ/, they will be indicated here for maximum coverage.

That said, the IPA transcriptions have been slightly modified to incorporate some punctuation — hyphens, commas, and so on — to indicate the structure of the example. Further, since the Hebrew writing system (its alphabet and niqqud) reflects not only phonology but also some grammar, Hebrew text is provided alongside IPA transcriptions in those cases where appropriate. The Hebrew text may appear with or without niqqud, as the example requires.

History of studies in Hebrew grammar

Further information: Hebraist

The Masoretes in the 7th to 11th centuries laid the foundation for grammatical analysis of Hebrew. As early as the 9th century Judah ibn Kuraish discussed the relationship between Arabic and Hebrew. In the 10th century, Aaron ben Moses ben Asher refined the Tiberian vocalization, an extinct pronunciation of the Hebrew Bible.

The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appear in the High Middle Ages, in the context of Midrash (a method of interpreting and studying the Hebrew Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad around the 7th century. The Diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.

Solomon ibn Gabirol in the 11th century composed a versified Hebrew grammar, consisting of 400 verses divided into ten parts. In the 12th century, Ibn Barun compared the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition. 11th to 12th century grammarians of the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain included Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah, Abraham ibn Ezra, Joseph Kimhi, Moses Kimhi and David Kimhi. Ibn Ezra gives a list of the oldest Hebrew grammarians in the introduction to his Moznayim (1140). Roger Bacon was "a tolerable Hebrew scholar". Profiat Duran published an influential grammar in 1403.

Judah Messer Leon's 1454 grammar is a product of the Italian Renaissance. Hebrew grammars by Christian authors appeared during the Renaissance. Hieronymus Buclidius, a friend of Erasmus, gave more than 20,000 francs to establish a Hebrew chair at Louvain. Elijah Levita was called to the chair of Hebrew at the University of Paris. Cardinal Grimani and other dignitaries, both of the state and of the Church, studied Hebrew and the Cabala with Jewish teachers; even the warrior Guido Rangoni attempted the Hebrew language with the aid of Jacob Mantino (1526). Pico de la Mirandola (d. 1494) was the first to collect Hebrew manuscripts, and Reuchlin was the first to write a modern grammar of the Hebrew language (1506). Conrad Gesner (d. 1565) was the first Christian to compile a catalogue of Hebrew books. Paul Fagius and Elia Levita operated the first Hebrew printing office in the 1540s. Levita also compiled the first Hebrew-Yiddish dictionary.

Through the influence of Johannes Buxtorf (d. 1629) a serious attempt was made to understand the post-Biblical literature, and many of the most important works were translated into Latin. Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar appeared in 1813.

Sentence structure

Sentence structure in Hebrew is somewhat similar to that in English, but there are a number of differences. For example, the verb to be is not used in the present tense, resulting in a number of special present-tense structures.

Sentences with action verbs

Most but not all Hebrew sentences have a subject as well as a verb, and possibly other arguments and complements. In this case, the word order is usually Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), as in English. However, word order can change in the following instances:

• An object can typically be topicalized by moving it to the front of the sentence. When the object is a question word, this topicalization is almost mandatory. Example : ?למי הוא אמר [leˈmi hu aˈmaʁ?], literally "To-whom he told?", means "Whom did he tell?" In other cases, this topicalization can be used for emphasis. (See dislocation (syntax).)
• Hebrew is a pro-drop language. This means that subject pronouns are sometimes omitted when verb conjugations reflect gender, number, and person.
• Indefinite subjects (like English's a boy, a book, and so on) are often postponed, giving the sentence some of the sense of "there exists [subject]" in addition to the verb's normal meaning. For example, פנה אליי איזשהו אדם שביקש שאעזור לו עם דבר-מה [paˈna eˈlaj ˈezeʃehu aˈdam, ʃe-biˈkeʃ ʃe-eeˈzor lo im dvar-ˈma], literally "Faced-to-me some man that-asked that-[I]-will-help to-him with something", means "A man came to me wanting me to help him with something." This serves a purpose somewhat analogous to English's narrative use of this with a semantically indefinite subject: "So, I'm at work, and this man comes up to me and asks me to help him." Indeed, outside of the present tense, mere existence is expressed using the verb to be with a postponed indefinite subject. Example: הייתה סיבה שביקשתי [hajˈta siˈba ʃe-biˈkaʃti], literally "Was reason that-[I]-asked", means "There was a reason I asked."
• Definite subjects can be postponed for a number of reasons.
  • In some cases, a postponed subject can be used to sound formal or archaic. This is because historically, Hebrew was typically Verb-Subject-Object (VSO). The Bible and other religious texts are predominantly written in VSO word order.
  • Sometimes, postponing a subject can give it emphasis. One response to התחל [hatˈħel!] ("Start") might be התחל אתה [hatˈħel aˈta!] ("You start!").
  • A subject might initially be omitted and then added later as an afterthought, such as נעשה את זה ביחד אתה ואני [naaˈse et ˈze beˈjaħad, aˈta vaaˈni], literally "[We]'ll-do it together, you and-I", means "You and I will do it together" or "We'll do it together, you and I".

Generally, Hebrew marks every noun in a sentence with some sort of preposition, with the exception of subjects and semantically indefinite direct objects. Unlike English, indirect objects require prepositions (as in "He gave me the ball"), and semantically definite direct objects are introduced by the preposition את [et].

Sentences with linking verbs

While the verb to be does have present-tense forms, they are used only in exceptional circumstances. The following structures are used instead:

• Where the past and future tenses follow the structure [sometimes-optional subject]-[form of to be]-[noun complement] (analogous to English, except that in English the subject is always mandatory), the present tense follows [optional subject]-[subject pronoun]-[noun complement].(הבן שלו הוא האבא שלה [haˈben ʃeˈlo hu ha-ˈaba ʃeˈlah], literally "the-son of-his he the-father of-hers", means "his son is her father.") While לא [lo] ("not") precedes the copula (form of to be) in the past and future tenses, it follows the copula (a subject pronoun) in the present tense.
• Where the past and future tenses are structured as [optional subject]-[form of to be]-[adjective complement] (analogous to English, except that in English the subject is mandatory), the present tense is simply [subject]-[adjective complement]. For example, הדלת סגורה [ha-ˈdelet sɡuˈʁa], literally "the-door closed", means "the door is closed." That said, additional subject pronouns are sometimes used, like with noun complements, especially with complicated subjects. Example: זה מוזר שהוא אמר כך [ze muˈzaʁʃe-hu aˈmaʁ kaχ], literally " it strange that-he said thus", means "that he said that is strange," i.e. "it's strange that he said that."
• Possession in Hebrew is constructed indefinitely. There is no Hebrew translation to the English verb "to have," common in many Indo-European languages to express possession as well as to serve as a helping verb. To express the English sentence "I have a dog" in Hebrew is "יש לי כלב", literally meaning "there exists to me a dog." The word יש [yesh] expresses existence in the present tense, and is unique in the Hebrew language as a verb-like form with no inflected qualities at all. Un-possession in the present tense in Hebrew is expressed with the antithesis to יש, which is אין [e(j)n] -- "אין לי כלב" [e(j)n li ˈkelev] means "I do not have a dog." Possession in the past and the future in Hebrew is also expressed impersonally, but uses conjugated forms of the Hebrew copula, להיות [lihiyot]. For example, the same sentence "I do not have a dog" would in the past tense become "לא היה לי כלב" [lo haja li kelev], literally meaning "there was not to me a dog."

Verbs

The Hebrew verb (פועל [ˈpoal]) serves essentially the same functions as the English verb, but is constructed very differently. Hebrew verbs have much more internal structure. Every Hebrew verb is formed by casting a three- or four-consonant root (שורש [ˈʃoʁeʃ]) into one of seven [binjaˈnim] (בניינים, meaning buildings or constructions; the singular is [binˈjan], written henceforth as binyan). Most roots can be cast into more than one binyan, meaning more than one verb can be formed from the typical root. When this is the case, the different verbs are usually related in meaning, typically differing in voice, valency, semantic intensity, aspect, or a combination of these features. The "concept" of the Hebrew verb's meaning is defined by the identity of the triliteral root. The "concept" of the Hebrew verb assumes verbal meaning by taking on vowel-structure as dictated by the binyan's rules.

Conjugation

Main article: Hebrew verb conjugation

Each binyan has a certain pattern of conjugation and verbs in the same binyan are conjugated similarly. Conjugation patterns within a binyan alter somewhat depending on certain phonological qualities of the verb's root; the alterations (called גיזרה [gizrah], meaning "form") are defined by the presence of certain letters composing the root. For example, three-letter roots (triliterals) whose second letter is ו [vav] or י [jud] are so-called hollow roots, losing their second letter in binyan [hifˈil], in [hufˈal], and in much of [paˈal]. The feature of being conjugated differently because the second root-letter is ו or י is an example of a gizrah. It is important to note that these verbs are not strictly irregular verbs, because all Hebrew verbs that possess the same feature of the gizrah are conjugated in accordance with the gizrah's particular set of rules.

Every verb has a past tense, a present tense, a future tense, and a conditional mood, with the present tense doubling as a present participle. Other forms also exist for certain verbs: verbs in five of the binyanim have an imperative mood and an infinitive, verbs in four of the binyanim have gerunds, and verbs in one of the binyanim have a past participle. Finally, a very small number of fixed expressions include verbs in the jussive mood, which is essentially an extension of the imperative into the third person. Except for the infinitive and gerund, these forms are conjugated to reflect the number (singular or plural), person (first, second, or third) and gender (masculine or feminine) of its subject, depending on the form.

In listings such as dictionaries, Hebrew verbs are sorted by their third-person masculine singular past tense form. This differs from English verbs, which are identified by their infinitives. (Nonetheless, the Hebrew term for infinitive is shem po'al, which means verb name.) Further, each of the seven binyanim is identified by the third-person masculine singular past tense form of the root פ-ע-ל (P-'-L, meaning doing, action, etc.) cast into that binyan: [ˈpaʕal], [nifˈʕal], [piˈʕel], [puˈʕal], [hifˈʕil], [hufˈʕal], and [hitpaˈʕel].

Binyan pa'al

Binyan pa'al, also called binyan קל [kal] (light), is the most common binyan. Pa'al verbs are in the active voice, and can be either transitive or intransitive. This means that they may or may not take direct objects. Pa'al verbs are never formed from four-letter roots.

Binyan pa'al is the only binyan in which a given root can have both an active and a passive participle. For example, רצוי [raˈt͡suj] (desirable) is the passive participle of רצה [ʁaˈt͡sa] (want).

Binyan pa'al has the most diverse number of gizrot (pl. of gizrah), and the small number of Hebrew verbs that are strictly irregular (about six to ten) are generally considered to be part of the pa'al binyan, as they have some conjugation features similar to pa'al.

Binyan nif'al

Verbs in binyan nif'al are always intransitive, but beyond that there is little restriction on their range of meanings.

The nif'al is the passive-voice counterpart of pa'al. In principle, any transitive pa'al verb can be rendered passive by taking its root and casting it into nif'al. Nonetheless, this is not nif'al's main use, as the passive voice is fairly rare in ordinary Modern Hebrew.

More commonly, it is pa'al's middle- or reflexive-voice counterpart. Ergative verbs in English often translate into Hebrew as a pa'al–nif'al pair. For example, English he broke the plate corresponds to Hebrew הוא שבר את הצלחת [hu ʃaˈvaʁ et ha-t͡saˈlaħat], using pa'al; but English the plate broke corresponds to Hebrew הצלחת נשברה [ha-t͡saˈlaħat niʃbeˈʁa], using nif'al. The difference is that in the first case, there is an agent doing the breaking, while in the second case, the agent is ignored. (Nonetheless, as in English, it can still be made clear that there was an ultimate agent: הוא הפיל את הצלחת והיא נשברה [hu hiˈpil et ha-t͡saˈlaħat vehi niʃbeˈʁa], he dropped the plate and it broke, uses nif'al.) Other examples of this kind include פתח [paˈtaħ]/נפתח [nifˈtaħ] (to open, transitive/intransitive) and גמר [ɡaˈmaʁ]/נגמר [niɡˈmaʁ] (to end, transitive/intransitive).

Other relationships between a pa'al verb and its nif'al counterpart can exist as well. One example is זכר [zaˈχaʁ] and נזכר [nizˈkaʁ]: both mean to remember, but the latter implies that one had previously forgotten, rather like English to suddenly remember. Another is פגש [paˈɡaʃ] and נפגש [nifˈɡaʃ]: both mean to meet, but the latter implies an intentional meeting, while the former often means an accidental meeting.

Finally, sometimes a nif'al verb has no pa'al counterpart, or at least is much more common than its pa'al counterpart; נדבק [nidˈbak] (to stick, intransitive) is a fairly common verb, but דבק [daˈvak] (to cling) is all but non-existent by comparison. (Indeed, נדבק [nidˈbak]'s transitive counterpart is הדביק [hidˈbik], of binyan hif'il; see below.)

Like pa'al verbs, nif'al verbs are never formed from four-letter roots.

Nif'al verbs, like verbs in the other passive binyanim (pu'al and huf'al, described below), do not have gerunds but they do have infinitives and imperatives.

Binyan pi'el

Binyan pi'el, like binyan pa'al, consists of transitive and intransitive verbs in the active voice, though there is perhaps a greater tendency for pi'el verbs to be transitive.

Most roots with a pa'al verb do not have a pi'el verb, and vice versa, but even so, there are many roots that do have both. Sometimes the pi'el verb is a more intense version of the pa'al verb; for example, קיפץ [kiˈpet͡s] (to spring) is a more intense version of קפץ [kaˈfat͡s] (to jump), and שיבר [ʃiˈbeʁ] (to smash, to shatter, transitive) is a more intense version of שבר [ʃaˈvaʁ] (to break, transitive). In other cases, a pi'el verb acts as a causative counterpart to the pa'al verb with the same root; for example, לימד [liˈmed] (to teach) is essentially the causative of למד [laˈmad] (to learn). And in yet other cases, the nature of the relationship is less obvious; for example, ספר [saˈfaʁ] means to count, while סיפר [siˈpeʁ] means to narrate (or to cut (hair)), and פתח [paˈtaħ] means to open (transitive), while פיתח [piˈteaħ] means to develop (transitive).

Binyan pu'al

Binyan pu'al is the passive-voice counterpart of binyan pi'el. Unlike binyan nif'al, it is used only for the passive voice. It is therefore not very commonly used in ordinary speech, except that the present participles of a number of pu'al verbs are used as ordinary adjectives: מבולבל [mevulˈbal] means mixed-up (from בולבל [bulˈbal], the passive of בלבל [bilˈbel], to confuse), מעוניין [meunˈjan] means interested, מפורסם [mefuʁˈsam] means famous (from פורסם [puʁˈsam], the passive of פרסם [piʁˈsem], to publicize), and so on. Indeed, the same is true of many pi'el verbs, including the pi'el counterparts of two of the above examples: מבלבל [mevalˈbel], confusing, and מעניין [meanˈjen], interesting. The difference is that pi'el verbs are also frequently used as verbs, whereas pu'al is much less common.

Pu'al verbs do not have gerunds, imperatives, or infinitives.

Binyan hif'il

Binyan hif'il is another active binyan. Hif'il verbs are often causative counterparts of verbs in other binyanim; examples include הכתיב [hiχˈtiv] (to dictate; the causative of כתב [kaˈtav], to write), הדליק [hidˈlik] (to turn on (a light), transitive; the causative of נדלק [nidˈlak], (for a light) to turn on, intransitive), and הרשים [hiʁˈʃim] (to impress; the causative of התרשם [hitʁaˈʃem], to be impressed). Nonetheless, not all are causatives of other verbs; for example, הבטיח [hivˈtiaħ] (to promise).

Binyan huf'al

Binyan huf'al is much like binyan pu'al, except that it corresponds to hif'il instead of to pi'el. Like pu'al, it is not commonly used in ordinary speech, except in present participles that have become adjectives, such as מוכר [muˈkaʁ] (familiar, from הוכר [huˈkaʁ], the passive of הכיר [hiˈkiʁ], to know (a person)) and מוגזם [muɡˈzam] (excessive, from [huɡˈzam], the passive of הגזים [hiɡˈzim], to exaggerate). Like pu'al verbs, huf'al verbs do not have gerunds, imperatives, or infinitives.

Binyan hitpa'el

Binyan hitpa'el is rather like binyan nif'al, in that all hitpa'el verbs are intransitive, and most have a reflexive sense. Indeed, many hitpa'el verbs are reflexive counterparts to other verbs with the same root; for example, התרחץ [hitʁaˈħet͡s] (to wash oneself) is the reflexive of רחץ [ʁaˈħat͡s] (to wash, transitive), and התגלח [hitɡaˈleaħ] (to shave oneself, i.e. to shave, intransitive) is the reflexive of גילח [ɡiˈleaħ] (to shave, transitive). Some hitpa'el verbs are a combination of causative and reflexive; for example,הסתפר [histaˈpeʁ] (to get one's hair cut) is the causative reflexive of סיפר [siˈpeʁ] (to cut (hair)), and הצטלם [hit͡staˈlem] (to get one's picture taken) is the causative reflexive of צילם [t͡siˈlem] (to take a picture (of someone or something)).

Hitpa'el verbs can also be reciprocal; for example, התכתב [hitkaˈtev] (to write to each other, i.e. to correspond) is the reciprocal of כתב [kaˈtav] (to write).

In all of the above uses, the hitpa'el verb contrasts with a pu'al or huf'al verb in two ways: firstly, the subject of the hitpa'el verb is generally either performing the action, or at least complicit in it, whereas the subject of the pu'al or huf'al verb is generally not; and secondly, pu'al and huf'al verbs often convey a sense of completeness, which hitpa'el verbs generally do not. So whereas the sentence אני מצולם [aˈni met͡suˈlam] (I am photographed, using pu'al) means something like there exists a photo of me, implying that the photo already exists, and not specifying whether the speaker caused the photo to be taken, the sentence אני מצטלם [aˈni mit͡staˈlem] (I am photographed, using hitpa'el) means something like I'm having my picture taken, implying that the picture does not exist yet, and that the speaker is causing the picture to be taken.

In other cases, hitpa'el verbs are ordinary intransitive verbs; for example, התנהג [hitnaˈheɡ] (to behave), while structurally the reciprocal of נהג [naˈhaɡ] (to drive), is essentially a separate verb; in talking about a car that drove itself, one would say מכונית שנוהגת עצמה [meχoˈnit ʃe-noˈheɡet at͡sˈma] (a car that drives itself, using nahag), not מכונית שמתנהגת [meχoˈnit ʃe-mitnaˈheɡet] (a car that behaves, using hitnaheg).

Nouns

The Hebrew noun (שם עצם [ʃem ˈet͡sem] is inflected for number and state, but not for case and therefore Hebrew nominal structure is normally not considered to be strictly declensional. Nouns are generally related to verbs (by shared roots), but their formation is not as systematic, often due to loanwords from foreign languages. Hebrew nouns are also inflected for definiteness by application of the prefix ה (ha) before the given noun. "Ha" is generally translated directly to the English word "the", but strictly speaking, this is not correct. It is more accurate to view "ha" as a morpheme for definiteness in the noun inflection.

Gender: masculine and feminine

Every noun in Hebrew has a gender, either masculine or feminine; for example, ספר [ˈsefeʁ] (book) is masculine, while דלת [ˈdelet] (door) is feminine. There is no strict system of formal gender, but there is a tendency for nouns ending in ת ([-t]) or ה (usually [-a]) to be feminine and for nouns ending in other letters to be masculine. There is a very strong tendency toward natural gender for nouns referring to people and some animals. Such nouns generally come in pairs, one masculine and one feminine; for example, איש [iʃ] means man and אישה [iˈʃa] means woman. (When discussing mixed-sex groups, the plural of the masculine noun is used.)

Number: singular, plural, and dual

Hebrew nouns are inflected for grammatical number; as in English, count nouns have a singular form for referring to one object and a plural form for referring to more than one. Unlike in English, some count nouns also have separate dual forms, for referring to two objects; see below.

Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding the suffix ים [-im]:

• מחשב [maħˈʃev] (computer) → מחשבים [maħʃeˈvim] (computers)

The addition of the extra syllable often causes the vowel in the first syllable to shorten:

• דבר [daˈvaʁ] (thing) → דברים [dvaˈʁim] (things)

Many common two-syllable masculine nouns, called segolates because most (but not all) of them have the vowel [seˈɡol] ([-e-]) in both syllables, undergo more drastic characteristic vowel changes in the plural:

• ילד [ˈjeled] (boy) → ילדים [jelaˈdim] (boys, children)
• בוקר [ˈbokeʁ] (morning) → בקרים [bkaˈʁim] (mornings)
• חדר [ˈħedeʁ] (room) → חדרים [ħadaˈʁim] (rooms)

Feminine nouns ending in [-a] or [-at] generally drop this ending and add [-ot], usually without any vowel changes:

• מיטה [miˈta] (bed) → מיטות [miˈtot] (beds)
• מסעדה [misaˈda] (restaurant) → מסעדות [misaˈdot] (restaurants)
• צלחת [t͡saˈlaħat] (plate) → צלחות [t͡salaˈħot] (plates)

Nouns ending in [-et] also replace this ending with [-ot], with an [-e-] in the preceding syllable usually changing to [-a-]:

• מחברת [maħˈbeʁet] (notebook) → מחברות [maħbaˈʁot] (notebooks)

Nouns ending in [-ut] and [-it] replace these endings with [-ujot] and [-ijot], respectively:

• חנות [ħaˈnut] (store) → חנויות [ħanuˈjot] (stores)
• אשכולית [eʃkoˈlit] (grapefruit) → אשכוליות [eʃkoliˈjot] (grapefruits)

Plural exceptions

A large number of masculine nouns take the usually-feminine ending [-ot] in the plural:

• מקום [maˈkom] (place) → מקומות [mekoˈmot] (places)
• חלון [ħaˈlon] (window) → חלונות [ħaloˈnot] (windows)

A small number of feminine nouns take the usually-masculine ending [-im]:

• מילה [miˈla] (word) → מילים [miˈlim] (words)
• שנה [ʃaˈna] (year) → שנים [ʃaˈnim] (years)

Many plurals are completely irregular:

• עיר [iʁ] (city) → ערים [aˈʁim] (cities)
• עפרון [ipaˈʁon] (pencil) → עפרונות [efʁoˈnot] (pencils)
• איש [iʃ] (man) → אנשים [anaˈʃim] (men, people)

Dual

Hebrew also has a dual number, expressed in the ending [-ajim], but even in ancient times its use was very restricted. In modern times, it is usually used in expressions of time and number, or items that are inherently dual. These nouns have plurals as well, which are used for numbers higher than two, for example:

Singular	Double	Triple
פעם אחת [ˈpaam aˈħat] (once)	פעמיים [paaˈmajim] (twice)	שלוש פעמים [ʃaˈloʃ peaˈmim] (thrice)
שבוע אחד [ʃaˈvua eˈħad] (one week)	שבועיים [ʃvuˈajim] (two weeks)	שלושה שבועות [ʃloˈʃa ʃavuˈot] (three weeks)
מאה [ˈmea] (one hundred)	מאתיים [maˈtajim] (two hundred)	שלוש מאות [ʃloʃ meˈot] (three hundred)

The dual is also used for some body parts, for instance:

• רגל [ˈʁeɡel] (leg) → רגליים [ʁaɡˈlajim] (legs)
• אוזן [ˈozen] (ear) → אוזניים [ozˈnajim] (ears)
• עין [ˈajin] (eye) → עיניים [e(j)ˈnajim] (eyes)
• יד [ˈjad] (hand) → ידיים [jaˈdajim] (hands)

In this case, even if there are more than two, the dual is still used, for instance [leˈkelev jeʃ ˈaʁba ʁaɡˈlajim] ("a dog has four legs").

The dual is also used for certain objects that are "inherently" dual. These words have no singular, for instance משקפיים [miʃkaˈfajim] (eyeglasses) and מספריים [mispaˈʁajim] (scissors). As in the English "two pairs of pants", the plural of these words uses the word זוג [zuɡ] (pair), e.g. [ʃne(j) zuˈɡot mispaˈʁajim] ("two pairs-of scissors-DUAL").

The name of the city גבעתיים Giv'atayim (Тwo Peaks, or Twin Peaks) is an atypical use of the dual number.

Noun construct

Hebrew's genitive case, or an approximation thereof, is achieved by placing two nouns next to each other. This is called a noun construct (סמיכות [smiˈχut]). The first noun is dependent upon the second and the second noun can be viewed as an adjective modifying the first noun.

The first noun in a noun construct must be in its construct form. For most nouns, the construct form is derived fairly easily from the normal (indefinite) form:

• The singular of a masculine noun typically does not change form.
• The plural of a masculine noun typically replaces the suffix ים- [-im] with the suffix י- [-e(j)].
• The singular of a feminine noun ending in ה- [-a] typically replaces that ה with a ת [-at].
• The plural of a feminine noun typically does not change form.

There are many words (usually ancient ones) that have changes in vocalization in the construct form. For example, the construct form of [ˈbajit] (house) is [be(j)t].

In addition, the definite article is never placed on the first noun (the one in the construct form).

• בית ספר [be(j)t ˈsefer] (literally, house-of book or bookhouse, i.e. school)
• בית הספר [be(j)t ha-ˈsefer] (literally, house-of the-book, i.e. the school)
• בתי חולים [baˈte(j) ħoˈlim] (literally, houses-of sick-people, i.e. hospitals)
• עוגת השוקולד [uɡat ha-ʃokolad] (the chocolate cake)
• דואר אוויר [ˈdoaʁ aˈviʁ] (air mail)
• כלב רחוב [ˈkelev ʁeˈħov] (street dog)
• בקבוק החלב [bakˈbuk he-ħaˈlav] (the bottle of milk)

However, this rule is not always adhered to in illiterate or slang speech, as for example העורך דין (literally the law organiser, i.e. lawyer).

Possession

Possession is generally indicated using the preposition [ʃel] (של, of or belonging to):

• הספר שלי [ha-ˈsefeʁ ʃeˈli] (literally the-book of-me, i.e. my book)
• הדירה שלך [ha-diˈʁa ʃelˈχa] (literally the-apartment of-you, i.e. your apartment)
• המשחק של אנדר [ha-misˈħak ʃel ˈendeʁ] (literally the-game of-Ender, i.e. Ender's Game)

In literary style, nouns are inflected to show possession through noun declension; a personal suffix is added to the construct form of the noun (discussed above). So, ספרי [sifˈʁe(j)] (books of) can be inflected to form ספריי [sfaˈʁaj] (my books),ספריך [sfaˈʁe(j)χa] (your books), ספרינו [sfaˈʁenu] (our books), and so forth, while דירת [diˈʁat] (apartment of) gives דירתי [diʁaˈti] (my apartment), דירתך [diʁatˈχa] (your apartment),דירתנו [diʁaˈtenu] (our apartment), etc.

While the use of these forms is mostly restricted to formal and literary speech, they are in regular use in some colloquial phrases, such as ?מה שלומך [ma ʃlomˈχa?] (literally "what peace-of-you?", i.e. "what is your peace?", i.e. "how are you?") or לדעתי [ledaaˈti] (in my opinion).

In addition, the inflected possessive is commonly used for terms of kinship; for instance, בני [bni] (my son), בתם [biˈtam] (their daughter), and אשתו [iʃˈto] (his wife) are preferred to הבן שלי [ha-ˈben ʃeli], הבת שלהם [ha-ˈbat ʃelahem], and האישה שלו [ha-iˈʃa ʃelo]. However, usage differs for different registers and sociolects: In general, the colloquial will use more analytic constructs in place of noun declensions.

Noun derivation

In the same way that Hebrew verbs are conjugated by applying various prefixes, suffixes and internal vowel combinations, Hebrew nouns can be formed by applying various "meters" (Hebrew [miʃkaˈlim]) to the same roots. Gerunds are one example (see above).

Many abstract nouns are derived from another noun, or from a verb (usually one in binyan hitpa'el) using the suffix [-ut]:

• ספר [ˈsefeʁ] (book) → ספרות [sifˈʁut] (literature)
• התייעץ [hitjaˈet͡s] (to consult) → התייעצות [hitjaaˈt͡sut] (advice)
• התרגש [hitʁaˈɡeʃ] (to get excited) → התרגשות [hitʁaɡˈʃut] (excitement)

The [katˈlan] meter, applied to a verb, indicates "someone who does this":

• שיקר [ʃiˈkeʁ] (to lie) → שקרן [ʃakˈʁan] (liar)
• פחד [paˈħad] (to be afraid) → פחדן [paħˈdan] (coward)

The suffix [-on] denotes a smaller version of something:

• ספר [ˈsefeʁ] (book) → ספרון [sifˈʁon] (booklet)
• מחשב [maħˈʃev] (computer) → מחשבון [maħʃeˈvon] (calculator)

Repeating the last two letters of a noun or adjective can also denote a smaller or lesser version:

• כלב [ˈkelev] (dog) → כלבלב [klavˈlav] (puppy)
• קצר [kaˈt͡saʁ] (short) → קצרצר [kt͡saʁˈt͡saʁ] (very short)

The [kaˈtelet] mishkal can have a variety of meanings:

• אדום [aˈdom] (red) → אדמת [aˈdemet] (measles)
• כלב [ˈkelev] (dog) → כלבת [kaˈlevet] (rabies)
• נייר [niˈjaʁ] (paper) → ניירת [naˈjeʁet] (paperwork)
• כסף [ˈkesef] (money) → כספת [kaˈsefet] (a safe)

New nouns are also often formed by the combination of two existing stems:

• קול [kol] (sound) + נוע [ˈnoa] (motion) → קולנוע [kolˈnoa] (cinema)
• רמז [ˈʁemez] (hint) + אור [oʁ] (light) → רמזור [ʁamˈzoʁ] (traffic light)

A combination of methods (the example has the kat'lan meter plus the ending [-ut]):

• תועלת [toˈelet] (benefit) → תועלתנות [toaltaˈnut] (utilitarianism)

Adjectives

In Hebrew, an adjective (שם תואר [ʃem toaʁ]) comes after the noun and agrees in gender, number, and definiteness with the noun which it modifies:

• ספר קטן [ˈsefeʁ kaˈtan] (a small book)
• ספרים קטנים [sfaˈʁim ktaˈnim] ( small books)
• בובה קטנה [buˈba ktaˈna] (a small doll)
• בובות קטנות [buˈbot ktaˈnot] (small dolls)

Adjectives ending in -i have slightly different forms:

• איש מקומי [iʃ mkoˈmi] (a local man)
• אישה מקומית [iˈʃa mkoˈmit] (a local woman)
• אנשים מקומיים [anaˈʃim mkomiˈjim] (local people)
• נשים מקומיות [naˈʃim mkomiˈjot] (local women)

Masculine nouns that take the feminine plural ending [-ot] still take masculine plural adjectives, e.g. מקומות יפים [mkoˈmot jaˈfim] (beautiful places). The reverse goes for feminine plural nouns ending in [-im], e.g. מילים ארוכות [miˈlim aʁuˈkot] (long words).

Note also that many adjectives, like segolate nouns, change their vowel structure in the feminine and plural.

Use of the definite article with adjectives

In Hebrew, unlike in English, an attributive adjective takes the definite article if it modifies a definite noun (either a proper noun, or a definite common noun).

The case of a proper noun highlights the fact that all Hebrew adjectives can be interpreted as appositive nouns. For example, contrast the following:

• דוד הגדול [daˈvid ha-ɡaˈdol] (David the Great, lit. David the-great (m.sing.))
• דוד המלך [daˈvid ha-ˈmeleχ] (David the King, lit. David the-king)

Adjectives derived from verbs

Many adjectives in Hebrew are derived from the present tense of verbs. These adjectives are inflected the same way as the verbs they are derived from:

• סוער [soˈeʁ] (stormy, pa'al) → סוערת [soˈeʁet], סוערים [soaˈʁim], סוערות [soaˈʁot]
• מנותק [menuˈtak] (alienated, pu'al) → מנותקת [menuˈteket], מנותקים [menutaˈkim], מנותקות [menutaˈkot]
• מרשים [maʁˈʃim] (impressive, hif'il) → מרשימה [maʁʃiˈma], מרשימים [maʁʃiˈmim], מרשימות [maʁʃiˈmot]

Adverbs

The Hebrew term for adverb is תואר הפועל [ˈtoaʁ ha-ˈpoal].

Hebrew forms adverbs in several different ways.

Some adjectives have corresponding one-word adverbs. In many cases, the adverb is simply the adjective's masculine singular form:

• חזק [ħaˈzak] (strong or strongly)
• ברור [baˈʁuʁ] (clear or clearly)

In other cases, the adverb has a distinct form:

• מהר [maˈheʁ] (quickly; from the adjective מהיר [maˈhiʁ], quick)
• לאט [leˈat] (slowly; from the adjective איטי [iˈti], slow)
• היטב [hitev] well; from the adjective טוב [tov], good

In some cases, an adverb is derived from an adjective using its singular feminine form or (mostly in poetic or archaic usage) its plural feminine form:

• אוטומטית [otoˈmatit] (automatically)
• מעדנות [maʕadaˈnot] (gently)

Most adjectives, however, do not have corresponding one-word adverbs; rather, they have corresponding adverb phrases, formed using one of the following approaches:

• using the prepositional prefix ב [be-] (in) with the adjective's corresponding abstract noun:
  • בזהירות [bezehiˈʁut] (in carefulness, i.e. carefully)
  • בעדינות [beadiˈnut] (in gentleness, i.e. gently)
• using the same prefix, but with the noun אופן [ˈofen] (a nature/fashion), and modifying the noun with the adjective's masculine singular form:
  • באופן אטי [beˈofen iˈti] ("in slow fashion", i.e. "slowly").
• similarly, but with the noun צורה [t͡suˈʁa] (form), and using the adjective's feminine singular form:
  • בצורה אופיינית [bet͡suˈʁa ofˈjanit] (in characteristic form, i.e. characteristically).

The use of one of these methods does not necessarily preclude the use of the others; for example, slowly may be either לאט [leˈat] (a one-word adverb), or באטיות [beitiˈut] (literally in slowness; a somewhat more elegant way of expressing the same thing), בלאט [beleˈat] (an even more elegant way of rendering the same), or באופן אטי [beˈofen iˈti] ("in slow fashion", i.e. "slowly"), as mentioned above.

Finally, like in English, there are various adverbs that do not have corresponding adjectives at all:

• לכן [laˈχen] (therefore)
• ככה [ˈkaχa] (this way)

Prepositions

Like English, Hebrew is primarily a prepositional language, with a large number of prepositions. Several of Hebrew's most common prepositions, however, unlike any in English, are prefixes rather than separate words; for example, English in the room is Hebrew בחדר [ba-ˈħedeʁ].

Direct objects

The preposition את [et] plays an important role in Hebrew grammar. Its most common use is to introduce a direct object; for example, English I see the book is in Hebrew אני רואה את הספר [aˈni roˈe et ha-ˈsefeʁ] (literally I see [et] the-book). However, את [et] is used only with semantically definite direct objects, such as nouns with the, proper nouns, and personal pronouns; with semantically indefinite direct objects, it is simply omitted: אני רואה ספר ani ro'e sefer (I see a book) does not use את [et]. This has no direct translation into English, and is best described as an object particle — that is, it denotes that the word it precedes is the direct object of the verb.

Finally, את [et] has a number of special uses; for example, when the adjective צריך [t͡saˈʁiχ] (in need (of)) takes a definite noun complement, it uses the preposition את [et]: היית צריך את זה [haˈjiti t͡saˈʁiχ et ze] (literally I-was in-need-of [et] this, i.e. I needed this). Here as elsewhere, the את [et] is dropped with an indefinite complement: היו צריכים יותר [haˈju t͡sʁeˈχim joˈteʁ] (literally were in-need-of more, i.e. they needed more). This is perhaps related to the verb-like fashion in which the adjective is used.

In Biblical Hebrew, there is possibly another use of et. Waltke and O'Connor (pp177–178) make the point:"...(1) ...sign of the accusative ... (2) More recent grammarians regard it as a marker of emphasis used most often which definite nouns in the accusative role. The apparent occurrences with the nominative are most problematic ... AM Wilson late in the nineteenth century concluded from his exhaustive study of all the occurrences of the debated particle that it had an intensive or reflexive force in some of its occurrences. Many grammarians have followed his lead. (reference lists studies of 1955, 1964, 1964, 1973, 1965, 1909, 1976.) On such a view, eth is a weakened emphatic particle corresponding to the English pronoun 'self' ... It resembles Greek 'autos' and Latin 'ipse' both sometimes used for emphasis, and like them it can be omitted from the text, without obscuring the grammar. This explanation of the particle's meaning harmonizes well with the facts that the particle is used in Michnaic Hebrew as a demonstrative and is found almost exclusively with determinate nouns."

Indirect objects

Indirect objects are objects requiring a preposition other than את [et]. The preposition used depends on the verb, and these can be very different from the one used in English. A good dictionary is required to look these up. In the case of definite indirect objects, the preposition will replace את [et].

• אני שכחתי מהבחירות [ani ʃaˈχaħti me-ha-bħiˈrot] (I forgot about the election)

The Hebrew grammar distinguishes between various kinds of indirect objects, according to what they specify. Thus, there is a division between objects for time תיאור זמן ([teˈuʁ zman]), objects for place תיאור מקום ([teˈuʁ maˈkom]), objects for reason תיאור סיבה ([teˈuʁ siˈba]) and many others.

In Hebrew, there are no distinct prepositional pronouns; if the object of a preposition is a pronoun, but the preposition contracts with the object, and the inflected preposition thus formed can be considered the indirect object of the sentence.

We spoke to David (dibarnu le-David) = דברנו לדוד

We spoke to him (dibarnu lo) = דברנו לו

As mentioned above, the direct object is often rendered with the word את (et). Et is excluded only when the direct object is a non-definite noun.

We protected David (shmarnu et David) = שמרנו את דוד

We protected him (shmarnu oto) = שמרנו אותו

Miscellaneous

Pronominal suffix

There is a form called the verbal pronominal suffix, in which a pronoun direct object can be rendered as an additional suffix onto the verb-form. This form allows for a high degree of word economy, as the single fully-conjugated verb expresses the verb, its voice, its subject, its object, and its tense.

We protected him (shmarnuhu) = שמרנוהו

In modern usage, the verbal pronominal suffices are rarely used, in favor of expression of direct objects as the inflected form of the separate word, et. It is used more commonly in biblical and poetic Hebrew (for instance, in prayers).

Impersonal sentences

A sentence may lack a subject. In this case it is called סתמי [staˈmi], or indefinite. If several parts of the sentence have the same function and are attached to the same word, they are called כולל [koˈlel], or collective. Two or more sentences that do not share common parts and are separated by comma are called משפט מחובר [miʃˈpat meħuˈbaʁ], or joined sentences. In many cases, the second sentence uses a pronoun that stands for the other's subject; they are generally interconnected.

Subordinate clauses

Like English, Hebrew allows clauses פסוקיות ([psukiˈjot]) to serve as parts of a sentence. A sentence containing a subordinate clause is called a משפט מורכב [miʃˈpat muʁˈkav]. Subordinate clauses almost always begin with the conjunction ש [ʃe-] (usually that), which attaches as a prefix to the word that follows it. For example, in the sentence יוסי אומר שהוא אוכל [ˈjosi oˈmeʁ ʃe-ˈhu oˈχel] (Yosi says that he is eating), the subordinate clause שהוא אוכל [ʃe-ˈhu oˈχel] (that he is eating) serves as the direct object of the verb אומר [oˈmeʁ] (says). Unlike English, Hebrew does not have a large number of subordinating conjunctions; rather, subordinate clauses almost always act as nouns and can be introduced by prepositions in order to serve as adverbs. For example, the English As I said, there's nothing we can do in Hebrew is כפי שאמרתי, אין מה לעשות [keˈfi ʃe-aˈmaʁti, e(j)n ma laaˈsot] (literally Like that-I-said, there-isn't what to-do).

That said, relative clauses, which act as adjectives, are also formed using ש [ʃe-]. For example, English Yosi sees the man who is eating apples is in Hebrew יוסי רואה את האיש שאוכל תפוחים [ˈjosi roˈe et ha-ˈiʃ ʃe-oˈχel tapuˈħim] (literally Yosi sees [et] the-man that-eats apples). In this use ש [ʃe-] sometimes acts as a relativizer rather than as a relative pronoun; that is, sometimes the pronoun remains behind in the clause: היא מכירה את האיש שדיברתי עליו [hi makiˈʁa et ha-ˈiʃ ʃe-diˈbaʁti aˈlav], which translates to She knows the man I talked about, literally means She knows [et] the-man that-I-talked about him. This is because in Hebrew, a preposition (in this case על [al]) cannot appear without its object, so the him יו ([-av]) could not be dropped.

See also

• Hebrew verb conjugation
• Prefixes and suffixes in Hebrew
• Hebrew spelling

Bibliography

• Laufer, Asher (1999). "Hebrew". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: 96–99.
• Bolozky, Shmuel. 501 Hebrew Verbs. Barron's Educational Series, Inc. ISBN 0-8120-9468-9.
• Glinert, Lewis. Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar (3rd edition ed.). Routledge UK. ISBN 0-415-70082-5. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
• Waltke, Bruce K. (1990). An introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake Indiana. pp. 177–178. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

External links

• Glamour of the Grammar - Hebraist Dr. Joel M. Hoffman's biweekly column on Hebrew grammar
• Foundationstone — Online Hebrew Tutorial
• Hebrew is easy, by Babel
• Learning Hebrew, Young Israel (most of the links leading to language learning are now dead links)
• A Basic Introduction to Hebrew grammar
• History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language, David Steinberg
• Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar - written by Wilhelm Gesenius; 1910 edition, edited and enlarged by Emil Kautzsch; translated by Arthur Ernest Cowley; scanned public domain book