Yao language

For the family of Southeast Asian languages, see Hmong-Mien languages.

Yao
Native to	Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania
Native speakers	1,916,000
Language family	Niger-Congo Atlantic-Congo Benue-Congo Bantoid Southern Bantoid Bantu Zone P Yao (P.20) Yao
Writing system	Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-2	yao
ISO 639-3	yao

Yao is a Bantu language in Africa with approximately 1 million speakers in Malawi, half a million in Tanzania, and around 450,000 in Mozambique. There are also some speakers in Zambia, mainly contracted labourers who live semi-nomadically. In Malawi, the main dialect is Mangoche, mostly around Lake Malawi. In Mozambique, the main dialects are Makale and Massaninga. The language has also gone by several other names, including ChiYao or CiYao, Achawa, Adsawa, Adsoa, Ajawa, Ayawa, Ayo, Ayao, Djao, Haiao, Hiao, Hyao, Jao, Veiao, and WaJao.

Though the Yao have had a history of cultural domination by Arab, British, German and Portuguese colonists, the language is at last gaining recognition as one of the more important in the region, and dictionaries and grammars have been written.

Phonetics and orthography

As in English, unvoiced plosives are breathed and voiced plosives are not. The five main South and Central Bantu vowels (pure a, e, i, o, u) apply. However, there is more variation than usual in vowel length.

In each of the main three countries where Yao is spoken, the orthography differs widely. This is mainly due to the extremely low literacy rate (5%). This is partially reflected in the vast indecision about the actual spelling of the name of the language itself, though much of this is more reflective of European ignorance of the Yao people. In Tanzania, the orthography is based on that of Swahili, whereas in Malawi it is based on that of Chewa.

The Malawian form, based on the English alphabet before phonetics became a science, uses the following characters:

A,a B,b Ch,ch D,d E,e G,g I,i J,j K,k L,l Ly,ly M,m N,n Ng',ng' Ny,ny O,o P,p S,s T,t U,u W,w, Ŵ,ŵ Y,y

Note: J is sometimes written Dy. T is aspirated; P and K are not. Ny and Ly are palatal. Ng' is [ŋ], like the 'ng' in 'ring' S is retroflex. Ŵ is [ʋ]

Macrons can be used to prevent ambiguity that would otherwise arise due to the lack of representation of vowel length.

Grammar

Like all Bantu languages, Yao has a set form of verbal inflection and a variety of noun classes. The classes of Yao are mainly reflective of its membership in the Central 'P' group of Bantu languages.

Noun classes

Class	Prefix	Class characteristic	Used for
1	m-, mu-, mw-	ju	persons singular
2	ŵa-, a-, acha-, achi-	ŵa	persons plural
3	m-, mu-, mw-	u	living things singular
4	mi-	ji	living things plural
5	li-, ly-	li	miscellaneous singular
6	ma-	ga	plurals of class 5
7	chi-, ch'-	chi	miscellaneous singular
8	i-, y-	i	plurals of class 7
9	n-, ny-, mb-, (nw-)	ji	miscellaneous singular
10	n-, ny-, mb-, (nw-)	si	plurals of class 9
11	lu-	lu	like 9, also singulars of class 10
12	tu-	tu	plurals of class 13
13	ka-	ka	diminutives singular
14	u-	u	collective and abstract, no plural; also some singulars of class 6
15a	ku, kw-	ku	infinitives
15b	(ku-, kwa-)	ku	locality (to) (not strictly nouns)
16	(pa-)	pa	locality (at)
17	(mu-, mwa-)	mu	locality (in)

Note that the classes 15b, 16 and 17 are unusual in the mainstream Bantu system in being considered classes, while actually being prepositional prefixes or case prefixes. Also, classes 1 and 2 are somewhat irregular, with concord links mb- and a- respectively.

Verbal forms

The personal forms are (less polite forms in brackets):

Personal form prefix	English equivalent (pronoun)
n-, ni-	I
(u-)	(thou)
a-	he, she, it, you
tu-	we
m-, mu-, mw-	you
ŵa-, a-	they (he, you)

There are affirmative and negative forms of the verb, each with approximately the following divisions:

Indicative mood

As in many Bantu languages, this is characterised by an ending 'a'. Present, immediate future, present perfect, past and past perfect tenses are distinguished, the last being irregular in formation.

Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is similar in form to the indicative, but as in most Bantu languages, the final 'a' is changed to 'e'. It can be used as a polite imperative, and is usually associated with subordinate clauses.

Imperative

To form the 'ordinary' (often less polite) imperative, the simple stem may be used, or 'n' may be prefixed to the indicative, or the continuative suffixes '-ga' or '-je' may be added.

Pronouns

The personal pronouns relate only to classes 1 and 2. Other pronouns are formed from the class links. Note that these pronouns, like most Bantu personal pronouns, are absolute (cf. French 'moi'). The third person pronouns depend on noun class.

Absolute pronoun	English equivalent (subject pronoun, object pronoun)
une	I, me
(ugwe)	thou, thee
uwe	we, us
umwe	you

These forms may be combined according to certain normal Bantu laws of vowel elision with prefixes such as 'na' (with, and).

There are also several demonstratives, which as in many languages tend to come in threes ('this one', 'that one nearby', and 'that one far away') – that is, triple deixis is used.