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Still no good reason for your removing this. Clearly, you do not want it shown that Money suggested this before that 2005 research.
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An ongoing debate with regards to [[sex and psychology]] is the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus in-born factors.<ref name="Wijngaard"/><ref name="Kalbfleisch and Cody"/> According to [[Diane F. Halpern]], both factors play a role, but the relative importance of each must still be investigated.<ref>Halpern, Diane F, ''Sex Differences In Cognitive Abilities'', 2000</ref> The [[nature versus nurture]] question, for example, is extensively debated and is continually revitalized by new research findings.<ref name="Kalbfleisch and Cody"/>
An ongoing debate with regards to [[sex and psychology]] is the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus in-born factors.<ref name="Wijngaard"/><ref name="Kalbfleisch and Cody"/> According to [[Diane F. Halpern]], both factors play a role, but the relative importance of each must still be investigated.<ref>Halpern, Diane F, ''Sex Differences In Cognitive Abilities'', 2000</ref> The [[nature versus nurture]] question, for example, is extensively debated and is continually revitalized by new research findings.<ref name="Kalbfleisch and Cody"/>


In 1959, researchers such as [[John Money]] and Anke Erhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction".<ref name="Wijngaard"/> This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ehrhardt|first=Anke A.|coauthors=H. F. L. Meyer-Bahlburg|title=Effects of Prenatal Sex Hormones on Gender-Related Behavior|journal=Science|year=1981|volume=211|issue=4488|pages=1312–1317}}</ref><ref name=Bem1993>{{cite book|last=Bem|first=Sandra Lipsitz|title=The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven u.a.|isbn=0300056761|pages=25–27}}</ref> In 2005, scientific research investigating sex and psychology showed that gender expectations and [[stereotype threat]] affect behavior, and a person's [[gender identity]] can develop as early as three years of age.<ref>Ann M. Gallagher, James C. Kaufman, Gender differences in mathematics: an integrative psychological approach, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521826055, 9780521826051</ref>
In 1959, researchers such as [[John Money]] and Anke Erhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction".<ref name="Wijngaard"/> This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ehrhardt|first=Anke A.|coauthors=H. F. L. Meyer-Bahlburg|title=Effects of Prenatal Sex Hormones on Gender-Related Behavior|journal=Science|year=1981|volume=211|issue=4488|pages=1312–1317}}</ref><ref name=Bem1993>{{cite book|last=Bem|first=Sandra Lipsitz|title=The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality|year=1993|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven u.a.|isbn=0300056761|pages=25–27}}</ref> In 2005, scientific research investigating sex and psychology showed that gender expectations and [[stereotype threat]] affect behavior, and a person's [[gender identity]] can develop as early as three years of age.<ref>Ann M. Gallagher, James C. Kaufman, Gender differences in mathematics: an integrative psychological approach, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521826055, 9780521826051</ref> Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years.<ref name="Kalbfleisch and Cody"/>


Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.<ref name="Vetterling-Braggin" /> Others, such as [[Carole Pateman]], Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a [[patriarchy|patriarchal social system]].<ref name="Kloppenborg" /><ref>Pateman, Carole (1988). ''The Sexual Contract'', Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 207.</ref>
Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.<ref name="Vetterling-Braggin" /> Others, such as [[Carole Pateman]], Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a [[patriarchy|patriarchal social system]].<ref name="Kloppenborg" /><ref>Pateman, Carole (1988). ''The Sexual Contract'', Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 207.</ref>

Revision as of 14:12, 26 July 2011


Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Though socially constructed, femininity is made up of both socially defined and biologically created factors.[1][2][3][4] This makes it distinct from the simple definition of the biological female sex,[5][6] as women, men, and transgender people can all exhibit feminine traits.

Traits associated with femininity include a variety of social and cultural factors, and often vary depending on location and context.[7] Behavioral traits that are considered feminine include gentleness, empathy, and sensitivity.[8][9] The counterpart to femininity is masculinity.

History

The Birth of Venus (Botticelli) is a classic representation of femininity.[10] [11] Venus was a Roman goddess principally associated with love, beauty and fertility.

The historical origin of the English word feminine is from the Latin femina meaning "woman" or "female," and literally meant, "she who suckles".[12]

Modern notions of femininity began during the English medieval period at the time of the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Women in the Middle Ages were referred to simply as maiden, wife, or widow. After the Black Death in England wiped out approximately half of the population, traditional gender roles of wife and mother changed, and opportunities opened up for women in society. The concept of "woman" changed in a number of ways[13] and new language had to be created to describe these roles, with words like femininity and womanhood.[14]

Behavior and personality

See also: Sex and psychology
Marie-Denise Villers, Young Woman Drawing, 1801, was originally mistaken to be the work of a male artist. Elana Herzog explains, "when attributed to a well-respected, male artist, [it] was simply a lovely painting to be enjoyed. However, once recognized as the work of a woman, the painting developed faults and innately feminine attributes that had never before been apparent. "[15]

While the defining characteristics of femininity are not universally identical, some patterns exist. Gentleness, empathy, sensitivity, caring, compassion, tolerance, nurturance, deference, and succorance are behaviors generally considered feminine.[16][17][8][9] The feminine nature is considered by some to be more emotional and less logical than the masculine nature.[18][19][20]

Femininity is sometimes linked with sex and sexual appeal.[21][22] Sexual passiveness, or sexual reception, is sometimes considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire is sometimes considered masculine.[22]

Ann Oakley's sex/gender dichotomy has had a considerable influence on sociologists defining masculine and feminine behavior as regulated, policed, and reproduced in our society, as well as the power structures relating to the concepts. Some queer theorists and other postmodernists, however, have rejected the sex (biology)/gender (culture) dichotomy as a "dangerous simplification".[4]

An ongoing debate with regards to sex and psychology is the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behavior is due to socialization versus in-born factors.[1][3] According to Diane F. Halpern, both factors play a role, but the relative importance of each must still be investigated.[23] The nature versus nurture question, for example, is extensively debated and is continually revitalized by new research findings.[3]

In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Erhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction".[1] This theory, however, has been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial.[24][25] In 2005, scientific research investigating sex and psychology showed that gender expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and a person's gender identity can develop as early as three years of age.[26] Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's first three years.[3]

Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics associated with femininity arose from early human sexual encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, because of male and female anatomical differences.[8] Others, such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social system.[21][27]

In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the unconscious of the female it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.[28]

Clothing and appearance

Main article: Clothing § Gender differentiation

In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, light skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair.[5][29][30] In other cultures, however, these standards may vary. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered unfeminine.[31]

These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized by feminists and others as restrictive, unhealthy, and discriminatory.[32][30] In particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been blamed on the feminine ideal of thinness.[33]

In history

In some cultures, cosmetics are associated with femininity

Cultural standards vary a great deal on what is considered feminine. For example, in 16th Century France, high heels were considered a masculine type of shoe, though they are currently considered feminine.[34]

In Ancient Egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics, and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In Ancient Persia, clothing was generally unisex, though women wore veils and headscarves. Women in Ancient Greece wore himations; and in Ancient Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the maphorion.[35]

The typical feminine outfit of aristrocratic women of the Renaissance was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.[35]

Body alteration

Main article: Body alteration

Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose.[36] One such purpose has been to induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.

For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it often made walking difficult and painful.[37][38]

In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long neck characterizes feminine beauty.[39] The rings stretch the vertebrae and if the neck rings are removed, the neck muscles can no longer support the weight of the head and collapse. The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi, for instance, practice this form of body deformation.[40][41]

In politics

In international politics, female leaders of nations embody feminine expectations of national identity in their society.[citation needed] Aljazeera has suggested that Yingluck Shinawatra of Thailand has used her "feminine appeal," such as smiling, bending at the knees, and remaining pleasant, in her bid to become Thailand's first female president.[42] Some famous examples in political leadership and the ideal in femininity are represented by Hillary Rodham Clinton, USA;[43] Yulia Tymoshenko, Ukraine;[44] Isabel Martínez de Perón, Argentina; Michelle Bachelet, Chile; Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia[45] Laura Chinchilla, Costa Rica.[46] and Ekaterina Furtseva, Soviet Union;[47]

File:Barbie through time.JPG
From left to right, Barbie's appearance in the 90's, 00's and 10's

The Barbie fashion doll was introduced as the feminine ideal of modern aesthetic beauty[48] in 1959, in the United States. This is in spite of the fact that Barbie does not meet the aesthetic proportions that men in Indo-European cultures find most attractive.[49] Studies show that these men find a waist to hip ratio of 0.7 most attractive while Barbie has a waist to hip ratio of 0.545.[50] This icon of femininity[51] attracts a wide international audience of women and men.[52] She has been used as a teaching tool for femininity.[53] One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic and unattainable idea of feminine beauty and fits the weight criteria for anorexia.[54]

In China, female consumers rejected[55] Barbie's ideal of feminine beauty and its image for women as extraneously sexy.[56] In Iran, the feminine ideals and independent lifestyle represented by Barbie are considered a threat to Iranian values, "more harmful than an American missile."[57] In Saudi Arabia Barbie was banned for the same reason as a moral threat to Islam.[58]

Occupational roles

Teacher in a classroom in Madagascar. Teaching is often considered a feminine occupation.
Main article: Gender roles

Gender stereotypes influence occupations associated with femininity. These stereotypes include that women have a caring nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid, social worker, and nurse.[59] Occupational segregation keeps women in lower paid jobs, maintains gender inequality[60] and gender pay gap.[61]

Early computer programmers were women. This has reversed in recent decades, however, with programming being perceived as a masculine occupation.[62] In the field of medicine, the role of physician was traditionally seen as masculine, while the role of nurse was considered feminine. These associations are now considered outdated in much of the world, although certain specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are dominated by a masculine culture[63] and have a higher salary.[64]

Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western cultures, and women are perceived less favorably as potential leaders.[65] However, some people have argued that the "feminine"-style leadership, which is associated with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over "masculine" leadership, which is associated with focusing on tasks and control.[66] Female leaders are more often described by Western media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.[66] Role Congruity Theory, which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively, is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.[67][68][69][70][71]

Explanations for occupational imbalance

It has been argued that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and gender stereotypes evolved culturally to perpetuate this division.[9]

The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment[citation needed]. According to human capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training. Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain the sexual division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than unskilled masculinized occupations, such as truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for women.[59]

Role Congruity Theory, which proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected roles negatively, supports the empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one gender or the other.[67][68][69][70][71]

Religion

The Altai consider shamanism a feminine role [72]

Asian religions

Shamanism may have originated as early as the paleolithic period, predating all organized religions.[73][74] Archeological finds have suggested that the earliest known shamans were female.[75] Among Altaic peoples, shamanic roles continue to be filled primarily by women.[76] In Korea, for example, the mudang (무당) is usually female, acting as an intercessor between the human and spirit worlds.[77]

File:Tridevi.png
Shakti and the Tridevi of: Lakshmi, Parvati, and Saraswati

In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire universe[78] and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination, remains impotent and void. As the female manifestation of the supreme lord, she is also called Prakriti, the basic nature of intelligence by which the Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism, the universal creative force Yoni is feminine, with inspiration being the life force of creation.

Yin and yang

In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.[79]

In Judaeo-Christian theology

Holy Wisdom: Hagia Sophia

The Book of Genesis describes divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo. In Wisdom literature and in the wisdom tradition, wisdom is the feminine aspect of God.[80] According to the Book of Job, "Wisdom comes from nothingness."[81] In the Book of Wisdom, wisdom is “the fashioner of all things” (v. 22). Because wisdom is God’s “creative agent,” she must be intimately identified with God.[82]

The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew: Chokhmah, in Arabic: Hikmah, in Greek: Sophia, and in Latin: Sapientia. In Hebrew, both Shekhinah (the Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine inspiration) are feminine.

In the Kabbalah, Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the force in the creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah (understanding and perseption) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from Chokhmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the Creation of the Universe.[83]

Femininity in men

Main article: Effeminacy
RuPaul, a famous drag queen.

Men who behave in ways associated with femininity may be called effeminate. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are cross-dressers.[84] A drag queen is a man who wears women's clothing and behaves in an extremely feminine manner for entertainment purposes.

Femininity is not necessarily related to a man's sexuality, though male femininity is often associated with homosexuality in modern Western culture.[85][86]

The terms femiphobia, effeminophobia, and sissyphobia are sometimes used to describe a generally negative attitude displayed in many societies towards feminine men.[87][88]

Feminist views

See also: Feminism

Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir[1] contend that femininity and masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.[89]

Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and women's own aesthetics.[90]

Others, such as third-wave feminists and lipstick feminists, argue that feminism shouldn't devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.[91][92]

See also

References

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  80. ^ Goddesses and the Divine Feminine: A Western Religious History By Rosemary Radford Ruether
  81. ^ Job. 28:12
  82. ^ David Winston, The Wisdom of Solomon: a new translation with introduction and commentary, (New York, Doubleday, 1979), p. 194 ISBN 0385016441
  83. ^ The Kabbalah Of Isaac Luria Glossary
  84. ^ cross-dress." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
  85. ^ Why do gays fall for straights? The Advocate, Feb 17, 1998, 72 pages, No. 753, ISSN 0001-8996, Published by Here Publishing
  86. ^ Pezzote, Angelo Straight Acting: Gay Men, Masculinity and Finding True Love, Kensington Publishing Corp., 2008, ISBN 0758219431, 9780758219435
  87. ^ Bailey, J. Michael (2003). The Man Who Would Be Queen: The Science of Gender-Bending and Transsexualism. Joseph Henry Press, ISBN 978-0309084185
  88. ^ Fellows, Will, A Passion to Preserve: Gay Men as Keepers of Culture, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2005, ISBN 0299196844, 9780299196844
  89. ^ Butler, J. (1990). ‘’Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity.’’ New York; Routledge.
  90. ^ http://newhumanist.org.uk/1781
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