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POMOA ({{lang-am|የሕዝብ ድርጅት ጊዜያዊ ጽሕፌት ቤት}}) was a political organization in [[Ethiopia]]. POMOA functioned as a forum to involve different [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] organizations in the revolutionary process and to politicize and organize the masses.<ref name="t181">Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA181 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 181</ref><ref name="hai">Haile-Selassie, Teferra. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fptyAAAAMAAJ The Ethiopian Revolution, 1974-1991: From a Monarchical Autocracy to a Military Oligarchy]''. London [u.a.]: Kegan Paul Internat, 1997. p. 230</ref>
POMOA ({{lang-am|የሕዝብ ድርጅት ጊዜያዊ ጽሕፌት ቤት}}) was a political organization in [[Ethiopia]]. POMOA functioned as a forum to involve different [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] organizations in the revolutionary process and to politicize and organize the masses.<ref name="t181">Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA181 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 181</ref><ref name="hai">Haile-Selassie, Teferra. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fptyAAAAMAAJ The Ethiopian Revolution, 1974-1991: From a Monarchical Autocracy to a Military Oligarchy]''. London [u.a.]: Kegan Paul Internat, 1997. p. 230</ref>


POMOA was set up through a decree of the [[Derg]] military junta in December 1975.<ref name="c53">Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA262 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 53</ref><ref>Eide, Øyvind M. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7NsmAQAAIAAJ Revolution and Religion in Ethiopia: A Study of Church and Politics with Special Reference to the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus 1974-1985]''. Uppsala: [Svenska institutet för missionsforskning], Univ, 1996. p. 137</ref> The existence of POMOA was publicly declared on April 21, 1976 following the announcement of the National Democratic Revolution Programme. Initially the organization was known as the '''People's Organizing Provisional Office'''.<ref name="c66"/> The organization was conceptualized not as a political party, but as a 'popular revolutionary front'.<ref name="c66"/> POMOA functioned as a government department, receiving allocations from the state treasury.<ref name="t162"/> According to Kiflu Tadesse, POMOA had an annual budget of 7 million [[Birr]].<ref>Tadesse, Kiflu. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TK1yAAAAMAAJ Ethiopia Transformation and Conflict]''. Silver Spring, Md: K & S Distributors [u.a.], 1998. p. 56</ref>
POMOA was set up through a decree of the [[Derg]] military junta in December 1975.<ref name="c53">Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA262 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 53</ref><ref>Eide, Øyvind M. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7NsmAQAAIAAJ Revolution and Religion in Ethiopia: A Study of Church and Politics with Special Reference to the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus 1974-1985]''. Uppsala: [Svenska institutet för missionsforskning], Univ, 1996. p. 137</ref> The existence of POMOA was publicly declared on April 21, 1976 following the announcement of the National Democratic Revolution Programme. Initially the organization was known as the '''People's Organizing Provisional Office'''. The organization was conceptualized not as a political party, but as a 'popular revolutionary front'.<ref name="c66"/> The Yekatit '66 Political School, an institution under the supervision of POMOA, trained political cadres.<ref name="c67"/> POMOA functioned as a government department, receiving allocations from the state treasury.<ref name="t162"/> According to Kiflu Tadesse, POMOA had an annual budget of 7 million [[Birr]].<ref>Tadesse, Kiflu. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TK1yAAAAMAAJ Ethiopia Transformation and Conflict]''. Silver Spring, Md: K & S Distributors [u.a.], 1998. p. 56</ref>


The leading body in POMOA was a 15-member committee. Its full name was the Mass Political Education and Co-ordinating Committee.<ref name="t162">Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA162 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 162</ref> Its was commonly refered to a the 'Politburo'.<ref name="bulcha">Bulcha, Mekuria. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YEf4SJbLFqYC&pg=PA66 Flight and Integration: Causes of Mass Exodus from Ethiopia and Problems of Integration in the Sudan]''. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies [Nordiska Afrikainstitutet], 1988. pp. 65-66</ref> The Politburo was dominated by Meison.<ref>Abraham, Kinfe. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAqVZwjScw0C&pg=PA80 Ethiopia, from Bullets to the Ballot Box: The Bumpy Road to Democracy and the Political Economy of Transition]''. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1994. p. 80</ref> [[Haile Fida]], the leader of Meison, was the chairman of POMOA.<ref name="t181"/><ref name="c66"/> Sennai Likkai of the [[Waz League]] served as the vice chairman of the organization.<ref name="c66"/>
The leading body in POMOA was a 15-member committee. Its full name was the Mass Political Education and Co-ordinating Committee.<ref name="t162">Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA162 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 162</ref> Its was commonly refered to a the 'Politburo', and had many scholars within its ranks.<ref name="c66"/><ref name="bulcha">Bulcha, Mekuria. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YEf4SJbLFqYC&pg=PA66 Flight and Integration: Causes of Mass Exodus from Ethiopia and Problems of Integration in the Sudan]''. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies [Nordiska Afrikainstitutet], 1988. pp. 65-66</ref> The Politburo was dominated by Meison.<ref>Abraham, Kinfe. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAqVZwjScw0C&pg=PA80 Ethiopia, from Bullets to the Ballot Box: The Bumpy Road to Democracy and the Political Economy of Transition]''. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1994. p. 80</ref> [[Haile Fida]], the leader of Meison, was the chairman of POMOA.<ref name="t181"/><ref name="c66"/> Sennai Likkai of the [[Waz League]] served as the vice chairman of the organization.<ref name="c66"/>


Five political groups were active inside POMOA; Meison, Waz League, the [[Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Revolutionary Organization]] (Malerid), [[Echat]] and [[Seded]].<ref name="shinn"/> [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] employed tactics of playing out different POMOA factions against each other. The entry of Seded (the political faction started by the Derg military officers) caused controversy within the coalition. Two factions (Meison and Echat) opposed the entry of Seded into the alliance (seeing Seded as a threat to their influence in POMOA) whilst the other two (Malerid and Waz League) supported the integration of Seded.<ref name="c67">Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 67</ref> The coalition was shaken by the power struggle between Meison and Seded.<ref name="shinn"/>
Membership in POMOA was kept secret.<ref name="c66"/> Five political groups were active inside POMOA; Meison, Waz League, the [[Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Revolutionary Organization]] (Malerid), [[Echat]] and [[Seded]].<ref name="shinn"/> [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] employed tactics of playing out different POMOA factions against each other. The entry of Seded (the political faction started by the Derg military officers) caused controversy within the coalition. Two factions (Meison and Echat) opposed the entry of Seded into the alliance (seeing Seded as a threat to their influence in POMOA) whilst the other two (Malerid and Waz League) supported the integration of Seded.<ref name="c67">Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 67</ref> The different member organizations of POMOA conspired against each other, trying to place their own people in key positions inside POMOA.<ref name="c66"/> In particular, the coalition was shaken by the power struggle between Meison and Seded.<ref name="shinn"/>


POMOA built up organizational structures in the regions and provinces, and sometimes in the districts.<ref name="c66"/> The organization developed a network of some 4,000 political cadres in cells across the country.<ref name="shinn">Shinn, David H., and Thomas P. Ofcansky. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ep7__RWqq4IC&pg=PA337 Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia]''. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004. pp. 336-337</ref> POMOA took control of the [[kebele]]s (urban dwellers associations), and turned them into vigilante bodies.<ref name="mark">Markakis, John, and Michael Waller. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mWV2EtBcI1oC Military Marxist Regimes in Africa]''. London, England: F. Cass, 1986. p. 33</ref><ref>Katsikas, Suzanne J. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uo4EAQAAIAAJ The Arc of Socialist Revolutions: Angola to Afghanistan]''. Cambridge, Mass: Schenkman, 1982. p. 139</ref>
POMOA had committees for ideology, organization and for running the Yekatit '66 Political School. POMOA built up organizational structures in the regions and provinces, and sometimes in the districts.<ref name="c66"/> The organization developed a network of some 4,000 political cadres in cells across the country.<ref name="shinn">Shinn, David H., and Thomas P. Ofcansky. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ep7__RWqq4IC&pg=PA337 Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia]''. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004. pp. 336-337</ref> POMOA took control of the [[kebele]]s (urban dwellers associations), and turned them into vigilante bodies.<ref name="mark">Markakis, John, and Michael Waller. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mWV2EtBcI1oC Military Marxist Regimes in Africa]''. London, England: F. Cass, 1986. p. 33</ref><ref>Katsikas, Suzanne J. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uo4EAQAAIAAJ The Arc of Socialist Revolutions: Angola to Afghanistan]''. Cambridge, Mass: Schenkman, 1982. p. 139</ref>


On September 26, 1976, EPRP unleashed a campaign of assassinations against POMOA cadres.<ref name="ae">Uhlig, Siegbert. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=l4WUdKWGcYsC&pg=PA668 Encyclopaedia Aethiopica 3 He - N]''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007. 668</ref> The first prominent victim of the EPRP assassination spree was Fikre Merid (Meison leader and POMOA Committee member), who was shot in his car in Addis Abeba.<ref>Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA186 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 186</ref> The campaign of [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Red Terror]] began in March 1977, as POMOA militia squads and the army attacked the EPRP.<ref name="mark"/>
On September 26, 1976, EPRP unleashed a campaign of assassinations against POMOA cadres.<ref name="ae">Uhlig, Siegbert. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=l4WUdKWGcYsC&pg=PA668 Encyclopaedia Aethiopica 3 He - N]''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007. 668</ref> The first prominent victim of the EPRP assassination spree was Fikre Merid (Meison leader and POMOA Committee member), who was shot in his car in Addis Abeba.<ref>Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA186 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 186</ref> The campaign of [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Red Terror]] began in March 1977, as POMOA militia squads and the army attacked the EPRP.<ref name="mark"/>

Out of the 15 members of the original POMOA politburo, only two remained in active politics in 1984.<ref name="c67">Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 67</ref>


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July 1977, POMOA reorganized, 15 to 5 members in cc.<ref>Aliboni, Roberto. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqEMAAAAIAAJ The Red Sea Region: Local Actors and Superpowers]''. London: Sydney, 1985. p. 52</ref>
July 1977, POMOA reorganized, 15 to 5 members in cc.<ref>Aliboni, Roberto. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqEMAAAAIAAJ The Red Sea Region: Local Actors and Superpowers]''. London: Sydney, 1985. p. 52</ref>

POMOA declared on April 21, 1976 initially known as People's Organizing Provisional Office. Functioned as govt department, budgetary allocation from the state treasury. 15 member Mass Political Education and Co-ordinating Committee leading organ. Newspaper Revolutionary Ethiopia.<ref name="t162">Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA162 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 162</ref>


POMOA supervised by Supreme Organizing Committee, chaired by Mengistu.<ref name="t181">Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA181 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 181</ref>
POMOA supervised by Supreme Organizing Committee, chaired by Mengistu.<ref name="t181">Tiruneh, Andargachew. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ABbnAd0oWokC&pg=PA181 The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian]''. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 181</ref>
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In July 1977 Derg issued a proclamation calling for POMOA to be put more strictly under its control. This move signaled a divide between Derg and Meison.<ref>Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA262 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 57</ref>
In July 1977 Derg issued a proclamation calling for POMOA to be put more strictly under its control. This move signaled a divide between Derg and Meison.<ref>Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA262 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 57</ref>


POMOA was publicly declared with the NDRPE in April 1976. POMOA conceptualized not as a political party, but as a 'popular revolutionary front'. [[Haile Fida]], Meison leader, chairman of POMOA. Sennai Likkai of [[Waz League]] vice chairman of POMOA. 15-member CC. Many academics. Membership in POMOA secret, largely to confuse EPRP for assassinations. POMOA had ideology, organization and Yekatit committes. POMOA had region and provincial, and sometimes district, units. The different member organizations of POMOA conspired against each other, trying to move forward their own positions within POMOA.<ref>Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA66 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 66</ref>
Haile and Sennai competed over power in POMOA. Out of original 15, only 2 remained in active politics in 1984. Through POMOA Derg received a political backing (in the face of attacks by EPRP), especially through the building of organizational structures in the provinces. Mengistu sought to play out different POMOA factions against each other. July 1977 declaration final warning. Purge of Meison, Seded moved into positions in institutions like Yekatit.<ref name="c67">Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 67</ref>

Haile and Sennai competed over power in POMOA. Out of original 15, only 2 remained in active politics in 1984. Through POMOA Derg received a political backing (in the face of attacks by EPRP), especially through the building of organizational structures in the provinces. Yekatit, under POMOA's supervision, educated political cadres. Mengistu sought to play out different POMOA factions against each other. July 1977 declaration final warning. Purge of Meison, Seded moved into positions in institutions like Yekatit.<ref name="c67">Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA67 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 67</ref>


POMOA continued to exist after Meison's departure, but now under military control. Seded cadre Lt. Desta Tadesse new general secretary of POMOA. Several regional POMOA leaders now militaries. POMOA dissolved in december 1979, as COPWE was formed. One after one, POMOA member organization were purged.<ref>Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 68</ref>
POMOA continued to exist after Meison's departure, but now under military control. Seded cadre Lt. Desta Tadesse new general secretary of POMOA. Several regional POMOA leaders now militaries. POMOA dissolved in december 1979, as COPWE was formed. One after one, POMOA member organization were purged.<ref>Clapham Christopher. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LeszAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 68</ref>
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==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}

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Revision as of 17:00, 20 January 2012

POMOA (Template:Lang-am) was a political organization in Ethiopia. POMOA functioned as a forum to involve different Marxist-Leninist organizations in the revolutionary process and to politicize and organize the masses.[1][2]

POMOA was set up through a decree of the Derg military junta in December 1975.[3][4] The existence of POMOA was publicly declared on April 21, 1976 following the announcement of the National Democratic Revolution Programme. Initially the organization was known as the People's Organizing Provisional Office. The organization was conceptualized not as a political party, but as a 'popular revolutionary front'.[5] The Yekatit '66 Political School, an institution under the supervision of POMOA, trained political cadres.[6] POMOA functioned as a government department, receiving allocations from the state treasury.[7] According to Kiflu Tadesse, POMOA had an annual budget of 7 million Birr.[8]

The leading body in POMOA was a 15-member committee. Its full name was the Mass Political Education and Co-ordinating Committee.[7] Its was commonly refered to a the 'Politburo', and had many scholars within its ranks.[5][9] The Politburo was dominated by Meison.[10] Haile Fida, the leader of Meison, was the chairman of POMOA.[1][5] Sennai Likkai of the Waz League served as the vice chairman of the organization.[5]

Membership in POMOA was kept secret.[5] Five political groups were active inside POMOA; Meison, Waz League, the Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Revolutionary Organization (Malerid), Echat and Seded.[11] Mengistu Haile Mariam employed tactics of playing out different POMOA factions against each other. The entry of Seded (the political faction started by the Derg military officers) caused controversy within the coalition. Two factions (Meison and Echat) opposed the entry of Seded into the alliance (seeing Seded as a threat to their influence in POMOA) whilst the other two (Malerid and Waz League) supported the integration of Seded.[6] The different member organizations of POMOA conspired against each other, trying to place their own people in key positions inside POMOA.[5] In particular, the coalition was shaken by the power struggle between Meison and Seded.[11]

POMOA had committees for ideology, organization and for running the Yekatit '66 Political School. POMOA built up organizational structures in the regions and provinces, and sometimes in the districts.[5] The organization developed a network of some 4,000 political cadres in cells across the country.[11] POMOA took control of the kebeles (urban dwellers associations), and turned them into vigilante bodies.[12][13]

On September 26, 1976, EPRP unleashed a campaign of assassinations against POMOA cadres.[14] The first prominent victim of the EPRP assassination spree was Fikre Merid (Meison leader and POMOA Committee member), who was shot in his car in Addis Abeba.[15] The campaign of Red Terror began in March 1977, as POMOA militia squads and the army attacked the EPRP.[12]

Out of the 15 members of the original POMOA politburo, only two remained in active politics in 1984.[6]

AFter Seded's takeover more of a military organization.[11]


Yusuf killed.[14]

Yusuf belonged to Meison, killed by Derg. July 14, 1977, Derg take control of POMOA in order to counter influence of Meison. Meison break with derg in August 1977.[9]

July 1977, POMOA reorganized, 15 to 5 members in cc.[16]

POMOA supervised by Supreme Organizing Committee, chaired by Mengistu.[1]

SOC abolished, POMOA directly under Derg control.[17]

proclamation 108/1976 brough POMOA directly under Derg standing committee. retained by proclamations in Feb and July 1977[18]

pomoa under derg control Dec 1976.[19]

set up by Derg in December 1975, along with the Yekatit '66 Political School. Meison formed the core of POMOA structures.[3]

In July 1977 Derg issued a proclamation calling for POMOA to be put more strictly under its control. This move signaled a divide between Derg and Meison.[20]

Haile and Sennai competed over power in POMOA. Out of original 15, only 2 remained in active politics in 1984. Through POMOA Derg received a political backing (in the face of attacks by EPRP), especially through the building of organizational structures in the provinces. Mengistu sought to play out different POMOA factions against each other. July 1977 declaration final warning. Purge of Meison, Seded moved into positions in institutions like Yekatit.[6]

POMOA continued to exist after Meison's departure, but now under military control. Seded cadre Lt. Desta Tadesse new general secretary of POMOA. Several regional POMOA leaders now militaries. POMOA dissolved in december 1979, as COPWE was formed. One after one, POMOA member organization were purged.[21]

Leader of POMOA in Hararghe was Abdullahi Yusuf. He disarmed Shoan Christian settlers and implemented land reform. He was killed during an Addis visit in August 1977.[22]

References

  1. ^ a b c Tiruneh, Andargachew. The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 181
  2. ^ Haile-Selassie, Teferra. The Ethiopian Revolution, 1974-1991: From a Monarchical Autocracy to a Military Oligarchy. London [u.a.]: Kegan Paul Internat, 1997. p. 230
  3. ^ a b Clapham Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 53
  4. ^ Eide, Øyvind M. Revolution and Religion in Ethiopia: A Study of Church and Politics with Special Reference to the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus 1974-1985. Uppsala: [Svenska institutet för missionsforskning], Univ, 1996. p. 137
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Cite error: The named reference c66 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b c d Clapham Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 67
  7. ^ a b Tiruneh, Andargachew. The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 162
  8. ^ Tadesse, Kiflu. Ethiopia Transformation and Conflict. Silver Spring, Md: K & S Distributors [u.a.], 1998. p. 56
  9. ^ a b Bulcha, Mekuria. Flight and Integration: Causes of Mass Exodus from Ethiopia and Problems of Integration in the Sudan. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies [Nordiska Afrikainstitutet], 1988. pp. 65-66
  10. ^ Abraham, Kinfe. Ethiopia, from Bullets to the Ballot Box: The Bumpy Road to Democracy and the Political Economy of Transition. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1994. p. 80
  11. ^ a b c d Shinn, David H., and Thomas P. Ofcansky. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004. pp. 336-337
  12. ^ a b Markakis, John, and Michael Waller. Military Marxist Regimes in Africa. London, England: F. Cass, 1986. p. 33
  13. ^ Katsikas, Suzanne J. The Arc of Socialist Revolutions: Angola to Afghanistan. Cambridge, Mass: Schenkman, 1982. p. 139
  14. ^ a b Uhlig, Siegbert. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica 3 He - N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007. 668
  15. ^ Tiruneh, Andargachew. The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 186
  16. ^ Aliboni, Roberto. The Red Sea Region: Local Actors and Superpowers. London: Sydney, 1985. p. 52
  17. ^ Tiruneh, Andargachew. The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 188
  18. ^ Tiruneh, Andargachew. The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 194
  19. ^ Tiruneh, Andargachew. The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1987 : a Transformation from an Aristocratic to a Totalitarian. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1995. p. 209
  20. ^ Clapham Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 57
  21. ^ Clapham Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 68
  22. ^ >Clapham Christopher. Transformation and Continuity in Revolutionary Ethiopia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p. 203, 216
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