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{{About||a discussion of all spaceflight programs to date|History of spaceflight|a list of key events|Timeline of space exploration|other uses of the term|Space Race (disambiguation)}} |
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[[File:Sputnik asm.jpg|thumb|right|A replica of ''[[Sputnik 1]]'', the world's first artificial satellite, launched in 1957]] |
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[[File:As11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|[[Neil Armstrong]], one of the first two men to land on the Moon, and the first to walk on it, in 1969]] |
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The '''Space Race''' was a mid-to-late 20th century competition between the [[Soviet Union]] (USSR) and the [[United States]] (USA) for supremacy in space exploration. Between 1957 and 1975, the [[Cold War]] rivalry between the two nations focused on attaining firsts in space exploration, which were seen as necessary for national security and symbolic of technological and ideological superiority. The Space Race involved pioneering efforts to launch [[satellite|artificial satellites]], sub-orbital and orbital [[human spaceflight]] around the Earth, and piloted voyages to the [[Moon]]. It effectively began with the Soviet launch of the ''[[Sputnik 1]]'' artificial satellite on 4 October 1957, and concluded with the co-operative [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] human spaceflight mission in July 1975. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project came to symbolize [[détente]], a partial easing of strained relations between the USSR and the US. |
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The Space Race had its origins in the missile-based arms race that occurred just after the end of the [[World War II]], when both the Soviet Union and the United States captured advanced German rocket technology and personnel. |
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The Space Race sparked unprecedented increases in spending on education and pure research, which accelerated scientific advancements and led to beneficial [[Government spin-off|spin-off technologies]]. An unforeseen effect was that the Space Race contributed to the birth of the [[environmental movement]]; the first color pictures of Earth taken from deep space were used as icons by the movement to imply that the planet was a fragile "[[blue marble]]" surrounded by the blackness of space. |
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Some famous probes and missions include [[Sputnik 1]], [[Explorer 1]], [[Vostok 1]], [[Mariner 2]], [[Ranger 7]], [[Luna 9]], [[Alouette 1]], [[Apollo 8]], and [[Apollo 11]]. |
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==Origins== |
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===World War II=== |
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[[File:Wernher_von_Braun.jpg|thumb|[[Wernher von Braun]] (1912-1977), technical director of [[Nazi Germany]]'s missile program, became the United States lead rocket engineer during the 1950s and 1960s]] |
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The Space Race can trace its origins to [[Nazi Germany]], beginning in the 1930s and continuing during [[World War II]] when Germany researched and built operational [[ballistic missiles]]. Starting in the early 1930s, [[Weimar Republic|German]] aerospace engineers experimented with liquid-fueled [[rocket]]s, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long distances.<ref>Cornwell (2003), p. 147</ref> The head of the German Army's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker, gathered a small team of engineers that included [[Walter Dornberger]] and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets as long-range [[artillery]] in order to get around the [[Treaty of Versailles]]' ban on research and development of long-range [[cannon]]s.<ref>Cornwell (2004), p. 146</ref> [[Wernher von Braun]], a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at [[Kummersdorf|Kummersdorf-West]] in 1932.<ref>Cornwell (2003), p. 148</ref> Von Braun had romantic dreams about conquering outer space with rockets, and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.<ref>Cornwell (2003), p. 150</ref> |
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During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army's rocket program, Zanssen became the commandant of the [[Peenemünde]] army rocket centre, and von Braun was the technical director of the [[ballistic missile]] program.<ref>Burrows (1998), p. 96</ref> They would lead the team that built the [[Aggregate (rocket family)#A4 (V-2 rocket)|Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket]], which became the first vehicle to reach [[outer space]] during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943.<ref>Burrows (1998), pp. 99–100</ref> By 1943, Germany began mass-producing the A-4 as the [[V-2 rocket|Vergeltungswaffe 2]] (“Vengeance Weapon” 2, or more commonly, V2), a ballistic missile with a {{convert|320|km|mi|sp=iu|}} range carrying a {{convert|1130|kg|lb|sp=iu}} [[warhead]] at {{convert|4000|km/h|mi/h|sp=iu|}}.<ref>Burrows (1998), pp. 98–99</ref> Its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and [[radar]] detection provided little warning.<ref>Stocker (2004), pp. 12–24</ref> Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945.<ref>Gainor (2001), p. 68</ref> After the war, the V-2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.<ref name="Schefter29">Schefter (1999), p. 29</ref><ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 41</ref> |
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At war’s end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture Germany's rocket [[aerospace engineering|engineers]] along with the German rockets themselves and the designs on which they were based.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 24-41</ref> Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited the most with [[Operation Paperclip]], recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs. The United States also acquired a large number of complete V2 rockets.<ref name="Schefter29"/> |
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===Rocket teams assembled=== |
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[[File:Sergey_Korolyov_140-190_for_collage.jpg|thumb|[[Sergei Korolev]] (1907-1966) was the lead Soviet rocket engineer during the 1950s and 1960s]] |
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The German rocket center at Peenemünde was located in the eastern part of Germany, which became the Soviet zone of occupation. On Stalin's orders, the Soviet Union sent its best rocket engineers to this region to see what they could salvage for future weapons systems.<ref name="Siddiqi24-34">Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 24–34</ref> The Soviet rocket engineers were led by [[Sergei Korolev]].<ref name="Siddiqi24-34"/> He had been involved in space clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s, but was arrested in 1938 during [[Joseph Stalin|Joseph Stalin's]] [[Great Purge]] and imprisoned for six years in Siberia.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 4, 11, 16</ref> After the war, he became the USSR's chief rocket and spacecraft engineer, essentially the Soviets' counterpart to von Braun.<ref name="schefter7-10">Schefter (1999), pp. 7–10</ref> His identity was kept a [[Classified information|state secret]] throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as "the Chief Designer."<ref name="schefter7-10"/> In the West, his name was only officially revealed when he died in 1966.<ref name="schefter7-10"/> |
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After almost a year in the area around Peenemünde, Soviet officials moved most of the captured German rocket specialists to [[Gorodomlya Island]] on [[Lake Seliger]], about {{convert|240|km|mi|sp=iu}} northwest of Moscow.<ref name="siddiqi45">Siddiqi (2003a), p. 45</ref> They were not allowed to participate in Soviet missile design, but were used as problem-solving consultants to the Soviet engineers.<ref name="Gatland 100-01"/> They helped in the following areas: the creation of a Soviet version of the A-4; work on "organizational schemes"; research in improving the A-4 main engine; development of a 100-ton engine; assistance in the "layout" of plant production rooms; and preparation of rocket assembly using German components.<ref name="siddiqi45"/> With their help, particularly Helmut Groettrup's group, Korolev [[Reverse engineering|reverse-engineered]] the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the [[R-1 (missile)|R-1]], in 1948.<ref name="Groettrup">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvfam/earsiles.htm|title= Early Russian Ballistic Missiles|work= Encyclopedia Astronautix |last= Wade|first= Mark|accessdate=24 July 2010|archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20061016145847/http://www.astronautix.com/lvfam/earsiles.htm|archivedate= 16 October 2006}}</ref> Later, he developed his own distinct designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Groettrup Group's G4-R10 design from 1949.<ref name="Groettrup"/> The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951–53.<ref name="Groettrup"/> |
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In America, Von Braun and his team were sent to the United States Army's [[White Sands Missile Range|White Sands Proving Ground]], located in [[New Mexico]], in 1945.<ref>Burrows (1998), p. 123</ref> They set about assembling the captured V2s and began a program of launching them and instructing American engineers in their operation.<ref name="Burroughs129-134">Burrows (1998), pp. 129–134</ref> These tests led to the first rocket to take photos from outer space, and the first two-stage rocket, the [[WAC Corporal]]-V2 combination, in 1949.<ref name="Burroughs129-134"/> The German rocket team was moved from [[Fort Bliss]] to the Army's new [[Redstone Arsenal]], located in [[Huntsville, Alabama]], in 1950.<ref name="Burroughs137">Burrows (1998), p. 137</ref> From here, Von Braun and his team would develop the Army's first operational medium-range ballistic missile, the [[PGM-11 Redstone|Redstone rocket]], that would, in slightly modified versions, launch both America's first satellite, and the first piloted Mercury space missions.<ref name="Burroughs137"/> It became the basis for both the [[Jupiter-C|Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn family of rockets]].<ref name="Burroughs137"/> |
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===Cold War arms race=== |
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{{Quote box |title = |quote = The cold war would become the great engine, the supreme catalyst, that sent rockets and their cargoes far above Earth and worlds away. If [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky|Tsiolkovsky]], [[Hermann Oberth|Oberth]], [[Robert H. Goddard|Goddard]], and others were the fathers of rocketry, the competition between capitalism and communism was its midwife. |source = William E. Burrows,<br>''This New Ocean'', "The Other World Series", p. 147 |align = left |width = 35% |border = 3px |fontsize = |bgcolor = #CCCCCC }} |
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The [[Cold War]] (1947–1991) developed between two former allies, the Soviet Union and the United States, soon after the end of the Second World War. It involved a continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition, primarily between the Soviet Union and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western world, particularly the United States.<ref name = "Schmitz">Schmitz, (1999), pp. 149–154</ref> Although the primary participants' military forces never clashed directly, they expressed this conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, a nuclear arms race, and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.<ref name = "Schmitz" /> |
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In simple terms, the Cold War can be viewed as an expression of the ideological struggle between communism and capitalism.<ref name="Burroughs147-49">Burrows (2012), pp. 147–149</ref> The United States faced a new uncertainty beginning in September 1949, when it lost its monopoly on the [[Nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]].<ref name="Burroughs147-49" /> American intelligence agencies discovered that the Soviet Union had exploded its first atomic bomb, with the consequence that the United States potentially could face a future nuclear war that, for the first time, might devastate its cities.<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> Given this new danger, the United States participated in an arms race with the Soviet Union that included development of the [[Teller–Ulam design|hydrogen bomb]], as well as intercontinental [[strategic bomber]]s and intercontinental ballistic missiles ([[ICBM]]s) capable of delivering nuclear weapons.<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> A new fear of communism and its sympathizers swept the United States during the 1950s, which devolved into paranoid [[McCarthyism]].<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> With communism spreading in China, Korea, and Eastern Europe, Americans came to feel so threatened that popular and political culture condoned extensive "[[witch-hunt]]s" to expose communist spies.<ref name="Burroughs147-49"/> Part of the American reaction to the Soviet atomic and hydrogen bomb tests included maintaining a large [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], under the control of the [[Strategic Air Command]] (SAC). SAC employed intercontinental strategic bombers, as well as medium-bombers based close to Soviet airspace (in western Europe and in [[Turkey]]) that were capable of delivering nuclear payloads.<ref name="Polmar&Laur">Polmer and Laur (1990), pp. 229–241</ref> |
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For its part, the Soviet Union harbored fears of invasion. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during World War II after being invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941,<ref name=Burroughs149-51>Burrows (1998), pp. 149–151</ref> the Soviet Union was wary of its former ally, the United States, which until late 1949 was the sole possessor of atomic weapons. The United States had used these weapons operationally during World War II, and it could use them again against the Soviet Union, laying waste its cities and military centers.<ref name=Burroughs149-51/> Since the Americans had a much larger air force than the Soviet Union, and the United States maintained advance air bases near Soviet territory, in 1947 Stalin ordered the development of [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs) in order to counter the perceived American threat.<ref name="Gatland 100-01">Gatland (1976), pp. 100–101</ref> |
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In 1953, Korolev was given the go-ahead to develop the [[R-7 Semyorka]] rocket, which represented a major advance from the German design. Although some of its components (notably boosters) still resembled the German G-4, the new rocket incorporated staged design, a completely new control system, and a new fuel. It was successfully tested on 21 August 1957 and became the world's first fully operational ICBM the following month.<ref>Hall & Shayler (2001), p. 56</ref> It would later be used to launch the first satellite into space, and derivatives would launch all piloted Soviet spacecraft.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 468–469</ref> |
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The United States had multiple rocket programs divided among the different branches of the American armed services, which meant that each force developed its own ICBM program. The Air Force initiated ICBM research in 1945 with the [[MX-774]].<ref name="Atlas">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/atlas.htm |title= Atlas |work= Encyclopedia Astronautix |last= Wade|first= Mark|accessdate=24 July 2010}}</ref> However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches were conducted in 1947.<ref name="Atlas"/> In 1951, the Air Force began a new ICBM program called MX-1953, and by 1955 this program was receiving top-priority funding.<ref name="Atlas"/> The MX-1593 program evolved to become the [[SM-65 Atlas|Atlas-A]], with its maiden launch occurring on 11 June 1957, becoming the first successful American ICBM.<ref name="Atlas"/> Its upgraded version, the [[SM-65 Atlas|Atlas-D]] rocket, would later serve as an operational nuclear ICBM and be used as the orbital launch vehicle for [[Project Mercury]] and the remote-controlled [[Agena Target Vehicle]] used in [[Project Gemini]].<ref name="Atlas"/> |
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With the Cold War as an engine for change in the ideological competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, a coherent space policy began to take shape in the United States during the late 1950s.<ref>Burrows (1998), p. 138</ref> Korolev would take much inspiration from the competition as well, achieving many firsts to counter the possibility that the United States might prevail.<ref name="Siddiqia">Siddiqi (2003a), p.383</ref> |
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==Early Space Race: 1950s== |
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===Beginnings=== |
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In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch objects into space, the "starting line" was drawn for the Space Race.<ref name="Schefter3-5">Schefter (1999), pp. 3–5</ref> In separate announcements, just four days apart, both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958.<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> On 29 July 1955, [[James C. Hagerty]], president [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites" between 1 July 1957 and 31 December 1958 as part of their contribution to the [[International Geophysical Year]] (IGY).<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> Four days later, at the [[International Astronautical Federation|Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation]] in Copenhagen, scientist [[Leonid I. Sedov]] spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and announced his country's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future".<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> On 30 August 1955, Korolev managed to get the [[Soviet Academy of Sciences]] to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into Earth orbit: this was the ''defacto'' start date for the Space Race.<ref name="Schefter3-5"/> |
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Initially, President Eisenhower was worried that a satellite passing above a nation at over {{convert|100|km|mi|sp=iu}}, might be construed as violating that nation's sovereign airspace.<ref name="Schefter8">Schefter (1999), p. 8</ref> He was concerned that the Soviet Union would accuse the Americans of an illegal overflight, thereby scoring a propaganda victory at his expense.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 6</ref> Eisenhower and his advisors believed that a nation's airspace sovereignty did not extend into outer space, acknowledged as the [[Kármán line]], and he used the 1957–58 International Geophysical Year launches to establish this principle in international law.<ref name="Schefter8"/> Eisenhower also feared that he might cause an international incident and be called a "[[Warmonger]]" if he were to use military missiles as launchers. Therefore he selected the untried [[Naval Research Laboratory]]'s [[Vanguard rocket]], which was a research-only booster.<ref name="Schefter15-18">Schefter (1999), pp. 15–18</ref> This meant that von Braun's team was not allowed to put a satellite into orbit with their Jupiter-C rocket, because of its intended use as a future military vehicle.<ref name="Schefter15-18"/> On 20 September 1956, von Braun and his team did launch a Jupiter-C that was capable of putting a satellite into orbit, however the launch was used only as a suborbital test of nose cone reentry technology.<ref name="Schefter15-18"/> Had von Braun's team been allowed to orbit a satellite in 1956, the Space Race might have been over before it gained sufficient momentum to yield real benefits.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}} |
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===First artificial satellites=== <!-- Sputnik links here --> |
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[[File:Possible_PDM_signal_labeled_as_Sputnik_by_NASA.ogg|thumb|The signals of ''Sputnik 1'' continued for 22 days.]] |
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Korolev received word about von Braun's 1956 Jupiter-C test, but thinking it was a satellite mission that failed, he expedited plans to get his own satellite in orbit. Since his R-7 was substantially more powerful than any of the American boosters, he made sure to take full advantage of this capability by designing [[Sputnik 3|Object D]] as his primary satellite.<ref name="ObjectD">Cadbury (2006), pp.154–157</ref> It was given the designation 'D', to distinguish it from other R-7 payload designations 'A', 'B', 'G', and 'V' which were nuclear weapon payloads.<ref name="Siddiqi151">Siddiqi (2003a), p. 151</ref> Object D would dwarf the proposed American satellites, by having a weight of {{convert|1400|kg|lb|sp=iu}}, of which {{convert|300|kg|lb|sp=iu}} would be composed of scientific instruments that would photograph the Earth, take readings on radiation levels, and check on the planet's magnetic field.<ref name="Siddiqi151"/> However, things were not going along well with the design and manufacturing of the satellite, so in February 1957, Korolev sought and received permission from the [[Council of Ministers (Soviet Union)|USSR Council of Ministers]] to create a ''prosteishy sputnik'' (PS-1), or simple satellite.<ref name="ObjectD"/> The Council also decreed that Object D be postponed until April 1958.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 155</ref> The new ''sputnik'' was a shiny spherical ball that would be a much lighter craft, weighing {{convert|83.8|kg|lb|sp=iu}} and having a {{convert|58|cm|in|sp=iu|adj=on}} diameter. |
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<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/ |
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| title = Sputnik and The Dawn of the Space Age |
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| first = Steve |
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| last = Garber |
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| date = 10 October 2007 |
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| work = Sputnik 50th Anniversary |
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| publisher = [[National Aeronautic and Space Administration|NASA History Website]] |
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| location = Washington |
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}}</ref> The satellite would not contain the complex instrumentation that Object D had, but it did have two radio transmitters operating on different [[short wave radio]] frequencies, the ability to detect if a meteoroid were to penetrate its pressure hull, and the ability to detect the density of the Earth's [[thermosphere]].<ref name="von Hardesty72-73">Hardesty (2007), pp. 72–73</ref> |
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Korolev was buoyed by the first successful launches of his R-7 rocket in August and September, paving the way for him to launch his ''sputnik''.<ref name="Siddiqi163-168">Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 163–168</ref> Word came that the Americans were planning to announce a major breakthrough at an International Geophysical Year conference at the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] in Washington D.C., with a paper entitled "Satellite Over the Planet", on 6 October 1957.<ref name="Cadbury163">Cadbury (2006), p. 163</ref> Korolev's fear was that von Braun might launch a Jupiter-C with a satellite payload, on, or around, the fourth or fifth of October, in conjunction with the paper.<ref name="Cadbury163"/> The fear of being beaten made him hasten the launch, moving it to the fourth of October.<ref name="Cadbury163"/> The launch vehicle for PS-1, was a modified R-7 – vehicle 8K71PS number M1-PS– without much of the test equipment and radio gear that was present in the previous launches.<ref name="Siddiqi163-168"/> It arrived at the Soviet missile base [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Tyura-Tam]] in September and was prepared for its mission at [[Gagarin's Start|launch site number one]].<ref name="Siddiqi163-168"/> On Friday, 4 October 1957, at exactly 10:28:34 pm Moscow time, the R-7, with the now named ''[[Sputnik 1]]'' satellite, lifted off the launch pad, and placed this artificial "moon" into an orbit a few minutes later.<ref name="Hardesty 74">Hardesty (2007), p. 74</ref> But the celebrations were muted at the launch control centre until the down-range far east tracking station at [[Yelizovo|Kamchatka]] received the first distinctive beep...beep...beep sounds from Sputnik 1's radio transmitters, indicating that it was on its way to completing its first orbit.<ref name="Hardesty 74"/> About 95 minutes after launch, the satellite flew over its launch site, and its radio signals were picked up by the engineers and military personnel at Tyura-Tam: that's when Korolev and his team celebrated the first successful artificial satellite placed into Earth-orbit.<ref>Cadbury (2006), p. 164–165</ref> |
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[[File:GPN-2002-000184.png|thumb|right|400px|Launch rocket family of Sputnik, Laika, Gagarin, and more{{mdash}}R7/Soyuz]] |
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The Soviet success caused public controversy in the United States, and Eisenhower ordered the civilian rocket and satellite project, Vanguard, to move up its timetable and launch its satellite much sooner than originally planned.<ref name="Brzezinski254-67">Brzezinski (2007), pp. 254–267</ref> The 6 December 1957 [[Vanguard TV3|Project Vanguard launch failure]] occurred at [[Cape Canaveral]] in front of a live broadcast television audience in the United States.<ref name="Brzezinski254-67"/> Only in the wake of this very public failure did von Braun's Redstone team get the go-ahead to launch their Jupiter-C rocket as soon as they could. Nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, von Braun and the United States successfully launched its first satellite, on a modified Redstone booster, under the "civilian" name [[Juno 1]] to differentiate it from the army's Redstone missile. [[Explorer 1]] was the first successful American satellite. It was launched at Cape Kennedy in Florida (known as Cape Canaveral at the time) on January 31, 1958.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicogossian|first=Arnauld E.|title=Space Biology and Medicine: Space and Its Exploration|year=1993|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics|location=Washington, DC.|page=285}}</ref> It was 4,8 kg in mass and was launched on a four stage Juno 1 vehicle.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicogossian|first=Arnauld E.|title=Space and Biology: Space and Its Exploration|year=1993|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc.|location=Washington, DC.|page=285}}</ref> It carried a micrometeorite gauge and a [[Geiger-Müller tube]]. It passed in and out of the Earth-encompassing radiation belt with its 360 km by 2534 km orbit therefore saturating the tube’s capacity and proving what Dr. [[James Van Allen]], a space scientist at the [[University of Iowa]], had previously only theorized. It not only confirmed his theory, but also brought him to fame.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nicogossian|first=Arnauld E.|title=Space Biology and Medicine: Space and Its Exploration|year=1993|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc.|location=Washington, DC|page=285}}</ref> Said radiation belt is actually now known as the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]. This belt consists of a doughnut shaped zone of high-level radiation intensity around the Earth above the magnetic equator.<ref>{{cite book|last=Angelo|first=Joseph, A.|title=Encyclopedia of Space Astronomy|year=2006|publisher=Facts On Files, Inc.|location=New York, NY|page=634}}</ref> Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. It was because of the previous failure of the Vanguard rocket of December 1957 that scientist made the decision of using a military rocket allowing the successful launch the satellite. <ref>{{cite book|last=Angelo|first=Joseph, A.|title=Encyclopedia of Space Astronomy|year=2006|publisher=Facts On Files, Inc.|location=New York, NY.|page=634}}</ref> The satellite actually measured three phenomena. They are cosmic ray and radiation levels, the temperature in the spacecraft and finally the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no space for data storage though which meant that it had to transmit continuously. <ref>{{cite book|last=Angelo|first=Joseph, A.|title=Encyclopedia of Space Astronomy|year=2006|publisher=Facts On Files, Inc.|location=New York, NY|page=225}}</ref> A couple of months later in March 1958, a second satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instrument. |
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==Space Race in the 1960s== |
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===First humans in space=== |
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[[File:Yury Gagarin in space.jpg|thumb|left|The first human to travel into space, [[Yuri Gagarin]], launched in 1961.]] |
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By 1959 American observers believed that the Soviet Union would be the first to get a human into space, because of the time needed to prepare for Project Mercury's first launch.<ref name="bello1959">{{cite news | url=http://features.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2012/06/03/the-early-space-age-fortune-1959/?section=magazines_fortune | title=The Early Space Age | work=Fortune |year=1959 | accessdate=5 June 2012 | author=Bello, Francis}}</ref> On 12 April 1961, the Soviets launched [[Yuri Gagarin]] into orbit around the Earth on [[Vostok 1]].<ref name="HallGagarin">Hall (2001), pp. 149–157</ref> They dubbed Gagarin the first [[cosmonaut]], roughly translated from Russian and Greek as "sailor of the universe". Although he had the ability to take over manual control of his spacecraft in an emergency, it was flown in an automatic mode as a precaution; medical science at that time did not know what would happen to a human in the weightlessness of space.<ref name="HallGagarin"/> Vostok 1 orbited the Earth for 108 minutes and made its reentry over the Soviet Union, with Gagarin ejecting from the spacecraft at {{convert|7000|m|ft|style=si}}, and landing by parachute.<ref name="HallGagarin"/> Under [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale]] (International Federation of Aeronautics) FAI qualifying rules for aeronautical records, pilots must both take off and land with their craft, so the Soviets kept the landing procedures secret until 1978, when they finally admitted that Gagarin did not land with his spacecraft.<ref name="HallGagarin"/> When the flight was publicly announced, it was celebrated around the world as a great triumph, not just for the Soviet Union, but for the world itself, though it once again shocked and embarrassed the United States.<ref>Hall (2001), pp.157–163</ref> |
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The United States called their space travelers [[astronaut]]s ("star sailors" from the Greek), and it was 3 weeks later, on 5 May 1961, when [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space, launched on a suborbital mission [[Mercury-Redstone 3]], in a spacecraft named ''Freedom 7''.<ref>Schefter (1999), pp. 138–143</ref> Though he did not achieve orbit, unlike Gagarin he was the first person to exercise manual control over his spacecraft's [[Orientation (geometry)|attitude]] and [[retro-rocket]] firing.<ref>Gatland (1976), pp. 153–154</ref> The first Soviet cosmonaut to exercise manual control was [[Gherman Titov]] in [[Vostok 2]] on 6 August 1961.<ref>Gatland (1976), pp. 115–116</ref> |
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Almost a year after the Soviets put a human into orbit, astronaut [[John Glenn]] became the first American to orbit the Earth, on 20 February 1962.<ref name="Schefter156–164">Schefter (1999), pp. 156–164</ref> His [[Mercury-Atlas 6]] mission completed three orbits in the ''Friendship 7'' spacecraft, and splashed-down safely in the Atlantic Ocean, after a tense reentry, due to what falsely appeared from the telemetry data to be a loose heat-shield.<ref name="Schefter156–164"/> |
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===Kennedy launches the Moon race=== |
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{{Quote box |title = |quote =We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills, because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win, and the others, too. |
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It is for these reasons that I regard the decision last year to shift our efforts in space from low to high gear as among the most important decisions that will be made during my incumbency in the office of the Presidency.|source =John F. Kennedy,<br>Speech at Rice University, Houston, 12 September 1962<ref name="wechoose"/>|date=12 September 1962|align = right |width = 35% |border = 3px |fontsize = |bgcolor = #CCCCCC }} |
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On 20 April 1961, about one week after Gagarin's flight, American President [[John F. Kennedy#Space program|John F. Kennedy]] sent a memo to Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], asking him to look into the state of America's space program, and into programs that could offer [[NASA]] the opportunity to catch up.<ref>Kennedy to Johnson,[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo1.pdf "Memorandum for Vice President,"] 20 April 1961.</ref> Johnson responded about one week later, concluding that the United States needed to do much more to reach a position of leadership. Johnson recommended that a piloted moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely that the United States could achieve it first.<ref name="lbjmemo">Johnson to Kennedy,[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo2.pdf "Evaluation of Space Program,"] 28 April 1961.</ref> |
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On 25 May, Kennedy announced his support for the [[Apollo program]] and redefined the ultimate goal of the Space Race in an address to a special joint session of Congress:"I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth."<ref>{{cite web |
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|last=Kennedy |
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|first= John F. |
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|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20100302132856/http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/Urgent+National+Needs+Page+4.htm |
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|title= Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs |
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|work=Historical Resources |
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|publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |
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|date=25 May 1961 |
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|page=4 |
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|accessdate=16 August 2010}}</ref> |
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His justification for the Moon Race was both that it was vital to national security and that it would focus the nation's energies in other scientific and social fields.<ref name="wechoose">{{cite web |
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|last=Kennedy |
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|first= John F. |
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|url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03SpaceEffort09121962.htm |
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|title= Address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort|work=Historical Resources |
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|publisher=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum |
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|date=12 September 1962 |
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|accessdate=16 August 2010}}</ref> He expressed his reasoning in the famous "We choose the Moon" speech, on 12 September 1962, before a large crowd at [[Rice University]] Stadium, in Houston, Texas, near the site of the future [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Johnson Space Center]].<ref name="wechoose"/> |
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===Proposed Joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Moon Program=== |
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On 20 September 1963, in a speech before the United Nations General Assembly, President Kennedy proposed that the United States and the Soviet Union join forces in their efforts to reach the moon. Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] initially rejected Kennedy's proposal; however, during the next few weeks he concluded that both nations might realize cost benefits and technological gains from a joint venture. Khrushchev was poised to accept Kennedy's proposal at the time of Kennedy's assassination in November 1963.<ref name="spacedaily">{{cite web|last=Sietzen|first=Frank|title=Soviets Planned to Accept JFK's Joint Lunar Mission Offer|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/russia-97h.html|work="SpaceCast News Service" Washington DC -|accessdate=2 October 1997}}</ref> |
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Khrushchev and Kennedy had developed a measure of rapport during their years as leaders of the world's two superpowers, especially during the 1962 [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]. That trust was lacking with Vice President Johnson; when Johnson assumed the Presidency after Kennedy's assassination, Khrushchev dropped the idea of a joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. moon program.<ref name="spacedaily" /> |
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===Vostoks and Voskhods=== |
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[[File:Semyorka Rocket R7 by Sergei Korolyov in VDNH Ostankino RAF0540.jpg|thumb|right|Vostok rocket displayed at Ostankino]] |
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The Soviet Union achieved another first, with the first dual-piloted flights, [[Vostok 3]] and [[Vostok 4]] on 11–15 August 1962.<ref>Hall (2001), pp.183,192</ref> The two spacecraft came within approximately {{convert|6.5|km|mi}} of one another, close enough for radio communication.<ref>Gatland (1976), pp.117–118</ref> The launching of two spacecraft from the same pad during a very short period of time represented a significant technical accomplishment, however there was no capability for the spacecraft to maneuver closer to each other, and over the course of the mission they continued to drift as far as {{convert|2850|km|mi}} apart.<ref>Hall (2001), pp. 185–191</ref> |
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The Soviet Union achieved yet another first when it launched not only the first woman, but also the first civilian, in space-- [[Valentina Tereshkova]], on 16 June 1963, in [[Vostok 6]].<ref name="Hall194-218">Hall(2001), pp. 194–218</ref> Launching a woman was reportedly Korolev's idea, and it was accomplished purely for propaganda value.<ref name="Hall194-218"/> Tereshkova was one of a small corps of female cosmonauts who were amateur parachutists, but Tereshkova was the only one to fly.<ref name="Hall194-218"/> The USSR didn't again open its cosmonaut corps to women until 1980, two years after the United States opened its astronaut corps to women. |
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Korolev had planned further, long-term missions for the Vostok spacecraft, and had four Vostoks in various stages of fabrication in late 1963 at his [[S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia|OKB-1]] facilities.<ref name="Siddiqi 384-6">Siddiqi (2003a), pp.384–386</ref> At that time, the Americans announced their ambitious plans for the Project Gemini flight schedule. These plans included major advancements in spacecraft capabilities, including a two-person spacecraft, the ability to change orbits, the capacity to perform an [[extravehicular activity]] (EVA), and the goal of docking with another spacecraft.<ref name="Siddiqia" /> These represented major advances over the previous Mercury or Vostok spaceships, and Korolev felt the need to try to beat the Americans to many of these innovations.<ref name="Siddiqi 384-6"/> Korolev already had begun designing the Vostok's replacement, the next-generation [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz spacecraft]], a multi-cosmonaut spacecraft that had at least the same capabilities as the Gemini spacecraft.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 149</ref> However, Soyuz would not be available for at least three years, and it could not be called upon to deal with this new American challenge in 1964 or 1965.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 198</ref> Political pressure in early 1964–which some sources claim was from Khrushchev while other sources claim was from other Communist Party officials—pushed him to modify his four remaining Vostoks to beat the Americans to new space firsts in the size of flight crews, and the duration of missions.<ref name="Siddiqi 384-6"/> |
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On 12 October 1964, the Chief Designer delivered another Soviet space-first when [[Voskhod 1]] launched the first multi-person spacecraft, with three cosmonauts in a modified Vostok spacecraft.<ref>{{cite news |
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| title = Space Troika On Target |
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| author = Special |
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| agency = UPI |
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| newspaper = [[The Toronto Star]] |
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| publisher = [[Torstar]] |
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| location = Toronto |
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| date = 13 October 1964 |
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| page = 1}}</ref> The USSR touted another technological achievement during this mission: it was the first space flight during which cosmonauts performed in a shirt-sleeve-environment.<ref name="Schefter199-200">Schefter (1999), p. 199–200</ref> However, flying without spacesuits was not due to safety improvements in the Soviet spacecraft's environmental systems; rather this innovation was accomplished because the craft's limited cabin space did not allow for spacesuits. Flying without spacesuits exposed the cosmonauts to significant risk in the event of potentially fatal cabin depressurization.<ref name="Schefter199-200"/> This feat would not be repeated until the US [[Apollo Command Module]] flew in 1968; this later mission was designed from the outset to safely transport three astronauts in a [[shirt-sleeve environment]] while in space. |
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Between 14–16 October 1964, [[Leonid Brezhnev]] and a small cadre of high-ranking Communist Party officials, deposed Premier Khrushchev as Soviet government leader a day after Voskhod 1 landed, in what was called the "Wednesday conspiracy".<ref>{{cite news |
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| title = Kremlin summit probably greased skids for Mr. K |
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| last = Gayn |
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| first = Mark |
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| newspaper = [[The Toronto Star]] |
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| publisher = [[Torstar]] |
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| location = Toronto |
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| date = 16 October 1964 |
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| page = 11}}</ref> |
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The new political leaders, along with Korolev, ended the technologically troublesome Voskhod program, cancelling Voskhod 3 and 4, which were in the planning stages, and started concentrating on the race to the moon.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), pp. 510–511</ref> Voskhod 2 would end up being Korolev's final achievement before his death, as it would become the last of the many space firsts that demonstrated the USSR's domination in spacecraft technology during the early 1960s. According to historian Asif Siddiqi, Korolev's accomplishments marked "the absolute zenith of the Soviet space program, one never, ever attained since."<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 460</ref> There would be a two-year pause in Soviet piloted space flights while Voskhod's replacement, the Soyuz spacecraft, was designed and developed.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 207</ref> |
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[[File:Zond 3.25.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The unmanned [[Zond 3]] probe images the far side of the Moon in 1965]] |
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On 18 March 1965, about a week before the first American piloted Project Gemini space flight, the USSR accelerated the Space Race competition, by launching the two-cosmonaut [[Voskhod 2]] mission with [[Pavel Belyayev]] and [[Alexey Leonov]].<ref name="NYT650319">{{cite news |
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| title = Russian Floats in Space for 10 Minutes; Leaves Orbiting Craft With a Lifeline; Moscow Says Moon Trip Is 'Target Now' |
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| first = Henry |
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| last = Tanner |
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| url = http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0318.html?scp=2&sq=Voskhod%202&st=cse |
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| newspaper = [[The New York Times]] |
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| location = New York |
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| date = 19 March 1965 |
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| page = 1}}</ref> Voskhod 2's design modifications included the first airlock to allow for extravehicular activity (EVA), also known as a spacewalk.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 448</ref> Leonov performed the first-ever EVA as part of the mission.<ref name="NYT650319"/> A fatality was narrowly avoided when Leonov's spacesuit expanded in the vacuum of space, preventing him from re-entering the spacecraft.<ref name="schefter205">Schefter (1999), p. 205</ref> He had to improvise, and perform the potentially fatal partial depressurization of his spacesuit in order to re-enter the airlock.<ref name="schefter205"/> He succeeded in safely re-entering the ship, but he and Belyayev faced further challenges when the spacecraft's atmospheric controls flooded the cabin with 45% pure oxygen, which had to be lowered to acceptable levels before re-entry.<ref name="Siddiqi454-460"/> The reentry involved two more challenges: an improperly timed retrorocket firing caused the Voskhod 2 to land {{convert|386|km|mi}} off its designated target area, the town of [[Perm]]; and the instrument compartment's failure to detach from the descent apparatus caused the spacecraft to become unstable during reentry.<ref name="Siddiqi454-460">Siddiqi (2003a), pp.454–460</ref> |
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===Project Gemini=== |
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{{Main|Project Gemini}} |
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[[File:Gemini_12_Liftoff_Via_Titan_Launch_Vehicle.jpg|thumb|right|Gemini 12 lifts off]] |
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Focused by the commitment to a moon landing, in January 1962 the US introduced [[Project Gemini]], a two-crew-member spacecraft that would support Apollo by developing the key spaceflight technologies of [[space rendezvous]] and docking of two craft, flight durations of sufficient length to simulate going to the Moon and back, Extra-vehicular Activity for extended periods, and accomplishing useful work rather than just "walking in space." Although Gemini took a year longer than planned to accomplish its first flight, Gemini took advantage of the USSR's two-year hiatus after Voskhod, which enabled the US to catch up and surpass the previous Soviet lead in piloted spaceflight. Gemini achieved several significant firsts during the course of ten piloted missions: |
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* On [[Gemini 3]] (March 1965), astronauts [[Virgil I. Grissom|Virgil "Gus" Grissom]] and [[John Young (astronaut)|John W. Young]] became the first to demonstrate their ability to change their craft's orbit. |
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* On [[Gemini 5]] (August 1965), astronauts [[Gordon Cooper|L. Gordon Cooper]] and [[Pete Conrad|Charles "Pete" Conrad]] set a record of almost eight days in space, long enough for a piloted lunar mission. |
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* On [[Gemini 6A]] (December 1965), Command Pilot [[Wally Schirra]] achieved the first [[space rendezvous]] with [[Gemini 7]], accurately matching his orbit to that of the other craft, station-keeping at distances as close as {{convert|1|ft|m}}, and [[Orbital station-keeping|keeping station]] for three consecutive orbits.<ref>{{cite web |
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| title =THE WORLD'S FIRST SPACE RENDEZVOUS |
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| work =Apollo to the Moon; To Reach the Moon – Early Human Spaceflight |
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| publisher = Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum |
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| url =http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/rm.ey.g7.3.html |
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| accessdate =17 September 2007}}</ref> |
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* Gemini 7 also set a human spaceflight endurance record of fourteen days for [[Frank Borman]] and [[Jim Lovell|James A. Lovell]], which stood until both nations started launching space laboratories in the early 1970s. |
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* On [[Gemini 8]] (March 1966), Command Pilot [[Neil Armstrong]] achieved the first docking between two spacecraft, his Gemini craft and an [[Agena target vehicle]]. |
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* [[Gemini 11]] (September 1966), commanded by Conrad, achieved the first direct-ascent rendezvous with its Agena target on the first orbit, and used the Agena's rocket to achieve an [[apogee]] of {{convert|742|nmi|km}}, an Earth orbit record never broken as of {{Plain now}}. |
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* On [[Gemini 12]] (November 1966), [[Edwin Aldrin|Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin]] spent over five hours working comfortably during three (EVA) sessions, finally proving that humans could perform productive tasks outside their spacecraft. (This proved to be the most difficult goal to achieve.) |
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Most of the novice pilots on the early missions would command the later missions. In this way, Project Gemini built up spaceflight experience for the pool of astronauts who would be chosen to fly the Apollo lunar missions. |
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===Soviet Moon program=== |
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{{Main|Soviet Moonshot}} |
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[[File:Soviet lunar lander drawing.svg|right|thumb|200px|Lunniy Korabl (LK)]] |
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The Soviet Union had planned to divide their lunar program into two separate manned programs: circumlunar flights in 1967 and lunar landings from 1968. |
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The circumlunar missions were to be launched by a [[Proton (rocket)|UR-500]] rocket, later known as the Proton. The cosmonauts would be flown to the Moon in the [[Soyuz 7K-L1]] (Zond), which made four unsuccessful unmanned flights from 1967–1970. One flight of the Zond was, however, successful and returned its non-human passengers (tortoises) to Earth; had it been used for a manned circumlunar mission, the flight would have carried two cosmonauts. |
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The Soviet lunar landing missions would use spacecraft derived from the Soyuz 7K-L1. The orbital module (Soyuz 7K-L3), the "''Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl''" (LOK), had a crew of two. The LOK and a separate lunar lander, the "''[[LK Lander|Lunniy Korabl]]''" (LK), had 40% of the mass of the Apollo CSM/LM due to the launch vehicle's capabilities. |
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The launch vehicle would have been the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]], which was roughly the same height and takeoff mass as the American [[Saturn V]], exceeded its takeoff thrust by 28%, and yet had roughly half the [[Trans Lunar Injection|TLI]] payload capability. The N1 was unsuccessfully tested four times, exploding each time due to problems with the first stage's thirty engines. |
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The Soviet leadership cancelled the program in 1970 after the first two successful American Moon landings. |
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===Fatalities and disasters of the 1960s=== |
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Likely the worst disaster during the Space Race was the Soviet Union's [[Nedelin catastrophe]] in 1960.<ref name="Cadbury212-214">Cadbury (2006), pp. 212–214</ref> It happened on 24 October 1960, when Chief Marshal [[Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin|Mitrofan Nedelin]] gave orders to use improper shutdown and control procedures on an experimental [[R-16 (missile)|R-16 rocket]].<ref name="Cadbury212-214"/> The hasty on-pad repairs caused the missile's second stage engine to fire straight onto the full propellant tanks of the still-attached first stage.<ref name="Cadbury212-214"/> The resulting explosion, toxic-fuel spill and fire, killed anywhere from 92 to 150 top Soviet military and technical personnel.<ref name="Cadbury212-214"/> Marshal Nedelin was vaporized, and his only identifiable remains were his war medals, especially the [[Hero of the Soviet Union|Gold Star of the Soviet Union]].<ref name="Cadbury212-214"/> His death was officially explained as an airplane crash.<ref name="Cadbury212-214"/> It was also a huge set-back for the rocket's chief designer, [[Mikhail Yangel]], who was trying to unseat Korolev as the person responsible for the Soviet human spaceflight program.<ref name="Cadbury212-214"/><ref>Hardesty (2007), p. ix</ref> Yangel survived only because he went for a cigarette break in a bunker that was removed from the launch pad, but he would not rival Korolev during the rest of this period.<ref name="Cadbury212-214"/> The Nedelin catastrophe would remain an official secret until 1989, and the survivors of the incident were not allowed to discuss it until 1990, thirty-one years after it occurred.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 258</ref> |
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In 1986, in a series of newspaper articles in [[Izvestia]], it was disclosed for the first time that the USSR had officially covered up the 23 March 1961 death of Soviet cosmonaut [[Valentin Bondarenko]] from massive [[third-degree burn]]s from a fire in a high-oxygen isolation test chamber.<ref>Siddiqi (2003a), p. 266</ref> This revelation subsequently caused some speculation as to whether the [[Apollo 1]] disaster might have been averted had NASA been aware of the incident.<ref>Hardesty (20070, p. 212</ref> Bondarenko, at age 24, was the youngest of the early Vostok cosmonauts.<ref>Hall (2001), p. 131</ref> The Soviet government literally erased all traces of Bondarenko's existence in the cosmonaut corps upon his death.<ref name="oberg">Oberg, James,[http://www.jamesoberg.com/usd10.html ''Uncovering Soviet Disasters''], Chapter 10: "Dead Cosmonauts", pp 156–176, Random House, New York, 1988. Retrieved 8 January 2008.</ref> |
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In 1967, both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to a halt. Both nations had been rushing at full-speed on the Apollo and Soyuz programs, without paying due diligence to growing design and manufacturing problems. The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews. |
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In the United States, the first Apollo mission crew, Command Pilot [[Gus Grissom|"Gus" Grissom]], Senior Pilot [[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]], and Pilot [[Roger Chaffee]], were killed by suffocation in a cabin fire that swept through their [[Apollo 1]] spacecraft during a ground test on 27 January 1967. The fire was probably caused by an electrical spark. It grew out-of-control, fed by the spacecraft's pure oxygen atmosphere maintained at greater-than-normal atmospheric pressure.<ref name="sea5"/> An investigative board detailed design and construction flaws in the spacecraft, and procedural failings including failure to appreciate the hazard of the pure-oxygen atmosphere as well as inadequate safety procedures.<ref name="sea5"/> All these flaws had to be corrected over the next twenty-two months until the first piloted flight could be made.<ref name="sea5">{{cite book|first=Robert C., Jr. |last=Seamans|publisher=NASA History Office|title=Report of Apollo 204 Review Board |chapter=Findings, Determinations And Recommendations|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html|date=5 April 1967 |accessdate=7 October 2007}}</ref> |
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Mercury and Gemini veteran Gus Grissom had been a favored choice of [[Deke Slayton]], the grounded Mercury astronaut who became NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations, to make the first piloted landing. |
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Meanwhile, the Soviet Union was having its own problems with Soyuz development. Engineers reported 200 design faults to party leaders, but their concerns "were overruled by political pressures for a series of space feats to mark the anniversary of Lenin's birthday." |
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On 24 April 1967, the USSR suffered the death of its first cosmonaut, Colonel [[Vladimir Mikhaylovich Komarov|Vladimir Komarov]], the single pilot of [[Soyuz 1]]. This was planned to be a three-day mission to include the first Soviet docking with an unpiloted [[Soyuz 2]], but his mission was plagued with problems. Early on his craft lacked sufficient electrical power because only one of two [[solar panels]] had deployed. Then the automatic [[Orientation (geometry)|attitude]] control system began malfunctioning and eventually failed completely, resulting in the craft spinning wildly. Komarov was able to stop the spin with the manual system, which was only partially effective. The flight controllers aborted his mission after only one day, and he made an emergency re-entry. During re-entry a fault in the landing parachute system caused the primary chutes to fail, and the reserve chutes tangled together; Komarov was killed on impact. |
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Fixing these, and other, spacecraft faults caused an eighteen-month delay before piloted Soyuz flights could resume, similar to the US experience with Apollo. This, combined with Korolev's death, led to the quick unraveling of the Soviet Moon-landing program. |
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Other astronauts died while training for space flight, including four Americans ([[Ted Freeman]], [[Elliot See]], [[Charles Bassett|Charlie Bassett]], [[Clifton Williams]]), who all died in crashes of [[T-38 Talon|T-38]] aircraft. [[Yuri Gagarin]], the first man in space, met a similar fate in 1968, when he crashed in a [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15|MiG-15]] jet while training for a Soyuz mission. During the Apollo 15 mission in August 1971, the astronauts left behind a [[Fallen Astronaut|memorial]] in honor of all the people, both from the Soviet Union and the United States, who had perished during efforts to reach the moon. This included the Apollo 1 and Soyuz 1 crews, as well as astronauts and cosmonauts killed while in training. |
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In 1971, ''Soyuz 11'' cosmonauts [[Georgi Dobrovolski]], [[Viktor Patsayev]], and [[Vladislav Volkov]] [[asphyxiated]] during reentry. |
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===To the Moon=== |
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<!-- [[File:Walter Schirra on Apollo 7.jpg|thumb|[[Walter Schirra|Schirra]] on the ninth day of [[Apollo 7]].]]--> |
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The United States recovered from the Apollo 1 fire, fixing the fatal flaws in an improved version of the [[Apollo Command/Service Module#Major differences between Block I and Block II|Block II command module]]. The US proceeded with unpiloted test launches of the [[Saturn V]] launch vehicle ([[Apollo 4]] and [[Apollo 6]]) and the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] ([[Apollo 5]]) during the latter-half of 1967 and early 1968.<ref>Cadbury (2006), pp. 310–312, 314–316</ref> Apollo 1's mission to check out the [[Apollo Command/Service Module]] in Earth orbit was accomplished by Grissom's backup crew commanded by [[Wally Schirra|Walter Schirra]] on [[Apollo 7]], launched on 11 October 1968.<ref>Burrows (1999), p. 417</ref> The eleven-day mission was a total success, as the spacecraft performed a virtually flawless mission, paving the way for the United States to continue with its lunar mission schedule.<ref>Murray (1990), pp. 323–324</ref> |
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The Soviet Union also fixed the parachute and control problems with Soyuz, and the next piloted mission [[Soyuz 3]] was launched on 26 October 1968.<ref name="Hall144-47">Hall (2003), pp. 144–147</ref> The goal was to complete Komarov's rendezvous and docking mission with the un-piloted Soyuz 2.<ref name="Hall144-47"/> Ground controllers brought the two craft to within {{convert|200|m|ft}} of each other, then cosmonaut [[Georgy Beregovoy]] took control.<ref name="Hall144-47"/> He got within {{convert|40|m|ft}} of his target, but was unable to dock before expending 90 percent of his maneuvering fuel, due to a piloting error that put his spacecraft into the wrong orientation and forced Soyuz 2 to automatically turn away from his approaching craft.<ref name="Hall144-47"/> |
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The Soviet Zond spacecraft was almost ready for piloted [[circumlunar]] missions in 1968, although testing was not yet complete. At the time, the [[Soyuz 7K-L1|Soyuz 7K-L1/Zond spacecraft]] was not yet ready for piloted missions after five unsuccessful and partially successful automated test launches: Cosmos 146 on 10 March 1967; Cosmos 154 on 8 April 1967; [[Zond 1967A]] 27 September 1967; [[Zond 1967B]] on 22 November 1967.<ref name=tent>{{cite web |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/tent_launch.html |title=Tentatively Identified Missions and Launch Failures|publisher=NASA NSSDC|first=David R.|last=Williams|accessdate=30 July 2010|date=6 January 2005}}</ref> [[Zond 4]] was launched on 2 March 1968, and successfully made a circumlunar flight.<ref name="Siddiqi616-618">Siddiqi (2003b), pp. 616, 618</ref> After its successful flight around the Moon, Zond 4 encountered problems with its Earth reentry on 9 March, and was ordered destroyed by an explosive charge {{convert|15000|m|ft}} over the [[Gulf of Guinea]].<ref>Hall (2003), p. 25</ref> The Soviet official announcement said that Zond 4 was an automated test flight which ended with its intentional destruction, due to its recovery trajectory positioning it over the Atlantic Ocean instead of over the USSR.<ref name="Siddiqi616-618"/> |
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[[File:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|Earthrise, as seen from Apollo 8, 24 December 1968 (NASA)]] |
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During the summer of 1968, the Apollo program hit another snag: the first pilot-rated Lunar Module (LM) was not ready for orbital tests in time for a December 1968 launch. NASA planners overcame this challenge by changing the mission flight order, delaying the first LM flight until early 1969, and sending [[Apollo 8]] into lunar orbit without the LM in December on a new 'C-prime' mission.<ref>Kraft (2001), pp. 284–297</ref> This mission was in part motivated by intelligence rumors the Soviet Union might fly a piloted circumlunar Zond flight during late 1968.<ref>Chaikin (1994),pp.57–58</ref> In September 1968, [[Zond 5]], a Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft, with [[tortoises]] on board, made a circumlunar flight and returned to Earth, accomplishing the first successful splashdown of the Soviet space program, in the Indian Ocean.<ref>Siddiqi (2003b), pp.654–656</ref> It also scared NASA planners, as it took them several days to figure out that it was only an automated flight, not a piloted flight with cosmonauts, because voice recordings were transmitted from the craft ''en route'' to the Moon.<ref>Turnhill (2003), p. 134</ref> On 10 November 1968 another automated test flight of the 7K-L1 spacecraft – [[Zond 6]] – was launched, but this time, it encountered difficulties in its Earth reentry, and depressurized and deployed its parachute too early, causing it to crash-land only 16 kilometres (10 mi) from where it had been launched six days earlier.<ref>Siddiqi (2003b), pp.663–666</ref> |
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Apollo 8 launched on 21 December 1968, and became the first human-crewed spacecraft to leave low-Earth orbit and go to another [[Astronomical object|celestial body]], the Moon.<ref name="Poole19-34">Poole (2008), pp. 19–34</ref> On 24 December [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]], and [[Bill Anders]] became the first humans to enter into orbit around the Moon.<ref name="Poole19-34"/> They orbited ten times, and transmitted one of the most watched TV broadcasts in history, with their [[Apollo 8 Genesis reading|Christmas Eve program]] from lunar orbit, that concluded with a reading from the [[Authorized King James Version|King James Bible]]'s [[Book of Genesis]].<ref name="Poole19-34"/> A few hours later, the crew performed the first-ever [[Trans-Earth injection]] (TEI) burn, to blast the Apollo 8 spacecraft out of lunar orbit and on to a trajectory back to the Earth.<ref name="Poole19-34"/> Just over two days later, on 27 December, Apollo 8 safely splashed down in the Pacific, completing another first: NASA's first dawn splashdown and recovery.<ref name="Poole19-34"/> |
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It turned out there was no chance of a piloted Soviet circumlunar flight during 1968, due to the unreliability of the Zonds.<ref name="Cadbury318-19">Cadbury (2006), pp. 318–319</ref> After the successive launch failures of the [[N1 (rocket)|N1 rocket]] in 1969, Soviet plans for a piloted landing suffered first delay and ultimately cancellation.<ref>Siddiqi (2003b), pp. 665 & 832–834</ref> The launch pad explosion of the [[N1_(rocket)|N-1]] on 3 July 1969 was a significant setback.<ref name="SiddiqiN1-2nd launch">Siddiqi (2003b), pp. 690–693</ref> The rocket hit the pad after an engine shutdown, destroying itself and the launch facility.<ref name="SiddiqiN1-2nd launch"/> |
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===Apollo 11=== |
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{{Main|Apollo 11}} |
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[[File:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|American [[Buzz Aldrin]] during the first moonwalk in 1969]] |
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1969 saw the final leg of the Moon Race, with the United States leading it after the flight of Apollo 8.<ref name="Cadbury318-19"/> Unbeknownst to the Americans, the Soviet moon program was in deep trouble.<ref name="Cadbury318-19"/> Without the N-1 rocket, the Soviets had no way to land on the Moon.<ref>Parry (2009), pp.178–179</ref> The next two Apollo missions proved that the Lunar Module worked well, both in low-Earth orbit and in lunar orbit. It was time to proceed to an actual landing mission.<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 144–151</ref> Under this backdrop, Apollo 11 was being prepared for a July encounter with the Moon.<ref>Parry (2009), p. 148</ref> |
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The Apollo 11 crew consisted of commander (CDR) [[Neil Armstrong]], command module pilot (CMP) [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]], and lunar module pilot (LMP) [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin]].<ref>Chaikin (1994), p. 138</ref> They were selected as the crew in January 1969, and they trained for the mission until just before the actual launch day.<ref>Chaikin (1994), pp. 163–183</ref> On 16 July 1969, at exactly 9:32 am [[Eastern Time Zone|EDT]], the Saturn V rocket – serial number SA-506 – lifted off from [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|Launch Complex 39A]] at the Kennedy Space Center, Florida with Apollo 11 on board.<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 38–44</ref> |
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The lunar trip took just over three days.<ref>{{cite web |
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|last=Jones |
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|first=Eric M. |
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|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/Apollo11_Press-Kit_restored.pdf |
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|title=Apollo 11 Press Kit |
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|page=33 |
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|work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal |
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|date=1 January 2010 |
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|accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref> After achieving orbit, Armstrong and Aldrin transferred into the Lunar Module, named ''Eagle'', and began their descent. After overcoming several computer malfunctions, Armstrong took over manual flight-control at about {{convert|180|m|ft}}, and guided the Lunar Module to a landing on the Moon's [[Sea of Tranquility]] at 4:17 pm EDT, 20 July 1969. The first humans on the Moon would wait another six hours before they ventured out of their craft. At 10:56:15 pm EDT, Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon.<ref name="first step"/> |
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{{listen|filename=Neil Armstrong small step.wav|title=Neil Armstrong's historic first words on the Moon.|description="That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."|format=[[Ogg]]}} |
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The first step was witnessed by at least 500 million TV viewers on Earth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=spaceprogram| title=Space Program and Television|publisher=The Museum of Broadcast Communications|last=Paterson|first=Chris|year=2010|accessdate=11 August 2010}}</ref> His first words when he stepped off the LM's landing pad were, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."<ref name="first step">Murray (1990), p. 356</ref> Aldrin joined him on the surface almost 20 minutes later.<ref>{{cite web |
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|last=Jones |
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|first=Eric M. |
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|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.html |
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|title=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |
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|page=MET 109:43:16 |
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|work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal |
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|date=1 January 2010 |
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|accessdate=15 August 2010}}</ref> Altogether, they spent just under two and one-quarter hours outside their craft.<ref>{{cite web |
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|last=Jones |
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|first=Eric M. |
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|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.html |
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|title=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |
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|work=Apollo Lunar Surface Journal |
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|date=1 January 2010 |
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|accessdate=15 August 2010}} Mission elapsed time (MET) from when Armstrong states that he will step off the LM at 109hrs:24mins:13secs to when Armstrong was back inside the LM at 111hrs:38mins:38sec</ref> The next day, they performed the first launch from another celestial body, and rendezvoused with the ''Columbia'' Command Module.<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 250– 251</ref> |
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Apollo 11 safely blasted out of Moon orbit on its way back to a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean on 24 July 1969.<ref>Parry (2009), pp. 252–262</ref> When the spacecraft splashed down, 2,982 days had passed since Kennedy committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon and bringing him back safely to the Earth before the end of the decade; the mission was completed with just 161 days to spare.<ref>Murray (1990), p. 347</ref> With the safe completion of the Apollo 11 mission, the Americans won the race to the Moon.<ref>Schefter (1999), p. 288</ref> |
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Additional landing included [[Apollo 12]], [[Apollo 14]], [[Apollo 15]], [[Apollo 16]], and [[Apollo 17]]. |
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==The 1970s== |
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[[File:Apollo 17 The Last Moon Shot Edit1.jpg|thumb|right|Apollo 17's Saturn V in 1972]] |
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[[File:Apollo 17 Cernan on moon.jpg|thumb|right|Moonwalk, 13 December 1972.]] |
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The early 1970s were rounded out by several more U.S. manned Moon landings, which featured expanded tasks including more sample returns, experiments, and extended EVAs with a lunar rover. The USSR continued for time with their N1 rocket, as well as more Soyuz flights to their Salyut stations. Unmanned spacecraft were in the limelight as well, with the USSR launching unmanned lunar sample return missions and probes to Mars and Venus. The US launched probes to [[Mars]], [[Venus]], [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], and beyond, as well as launching Skylab, an orbital space station. Together, the US and Soviet conducted an orbital rendezvous by manned spacecraft in 1975. By the end of the 1970s, both were working on Space Shuttles and launching science missions at a fever pitch. |
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===Salyuts and Skylab=== |
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Having lost the race to the moon, the USSR decided to concentrate on orbital space stations. During 1969 and 1970, they launched six more Soyuz flights after Soyuz 3, then launched the first [[space station]], the [[Salyut 1]] laboratory designed by [[Kerim Kerimov]], on 19 April 1971. <!-- The dimensions, habitable volume and mass of the Salyuts don't seem to be readily available, but should go here.--> Three days later, the [[Soyuz 10]] crew attempted to dock with it, but failed to achieve a secure enough connection to safely enter the station. The [[Soyuz 11]] crew of [[Vladislav Volkov]], [[Georgi Dobrovolski]] and [[Viktor Patsayev]] successfully docked on 7 June and completed a record 22-day stay. The crew became the second in-flight space fatality during their reentry on 30 June. They were [[asphyxiated]] when their spacecraft's cabin lost all pressure, shortly after undocking. The disaster was blamed on a faulty cabin pressure valve, that allowed all the air to vent into space. The crew were not wearing pressure suits and had no chance of survival once the leak occurred. |
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Salyut 1's orbit was increased to prevent premature reentry, but further piloted flights were delayed while the Soyuz was redesigned to fix the new safety problem. The station re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 11 October, after 175 days in orbit. The USSR attempted to launch a second Salyut-class station designated Durable Orbital Station-2 (DOS-2) on 29 July 1972, but a rocket failure caused it to fail to achieve orbit. After the DOS-2 failure, the USSR attempted to launch four more Salyut-class stations through 1975, with another failure due to an explosion of the final rocket stage, which punctured the station with shrapnel so that it wouldn't hold pressure. While all of the Salyuts were presented to the public as non-military scientific laboratories, some of them were actually covers for the military [[Almaz]] reconnaissance stations. |
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The United States also had plans to launch a piloted space laboratory as part of the [[Apollo Applications Program]], using Apollo hardware. The original plans called for constructing the space laboratory using a spent Saturn [[S-IVB]] rocket stage (used to launch the Apollo craft into Earth orbit), however the space laboratory was ultimately pre-fabricated on Earth and launched by the modified first two stages of the [[Saturn V]] lunar launch vehicle, known as the [[Saturn INT-21]]. The orbital workstation [[Skylab]], weighed {{convert|169950|lb|kg}}, was {{convert|58|ft|m}} long by {{convert|21.7|ft|m}} in diameter, with a habitable volume of {{convert|10000|ft3|m3}}. Skylab 1, the mission to actually launch the space station, was launched on 14 May 1973, but was damaged during the flight, losing one of its solar panels and a meteoroid thermal shield. Subsequent human-crewed missions repaired the station, and the final mission's crew, [[Skylab 4]], set the Space Race endurance record with 84 days in orbit, when the mission ended on 8 February 1974. Skylab stayed in orbit another five years before reentering the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on 11 July 1979. |
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===Apollo–Soyuz Test Mission=== |
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[[File:Portrait of ASTP crews.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left|alt= the five crew members of ASTP sitting around a miniature model of their spacecrafts|Apollo-Soyuz crew: From left to right: [[Deke Slayton|Donald "Deke" Slayton]], [[Thomas Patten Stafford]], [[Vance Brand]], [[Alexey Leonov]], and [[Valeri Kubasov]].]] |
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While the Sputnik 1 launch can be called the start of the Space Race, its end is harder to pinpoint. In May 1972, President [[Richard M. Nixon]] and Soviet [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Premier]] [[Leonid Brezhnev]] negotiated an easing of relations known as [[detente]], creating a temporary "thaw" in the Cold War. In the spirit of good sportsmanship, the time seemed right for cooperation rather than competition, and the notion of a continuing "race" began to subside. |
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The two nations planned a joint mission to dock the last US Apollo craft with a Soyuz, known as the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] (ASTP). To prepare, the US designed a docking module for the Apollo that was compatible with the Soviet docking system, which allowed any of their craft to dock with any other (e.g. Soyuz/Soyuz as well as Soyuz/Salyut). The module was also necessary as an airlock to allow the men to visit each other's craft, which had incompatible cabin atmospheres. The USSR used the [[Soyuz 16]] mission in December 1974 to prepare for ASTP. |
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The joint mission began when [[Soyuz 19]] was first launched on 15 July 1975 at 12:20 [[UTC]], and the Apollo craft was launched with the docking module six and a half hours later. The two craft rendezvoused and docked on 17 July at 16:19 [[UTC]]. The three astronauts conducted joint experiments with the two cosmonauts, and the crew shook hands, exchanged gifts, and visited each other's craft. |
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===After Apollo=== |
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In the 1970s, the United States began developing a new generation of reusable orbital spacecraft known as the [[Space Shuttle]], and launched a range of unmanned probes. The USSR continued to develop space station technology with the [[Salyut program]] and [[Mir]] ('Peace' or 'Earth') space station, supported by Soyuz spacecraft. They developed their own large space shuttle under the [[Buran program]]. However, the USSR [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolved in 1991]] and the remains of its space program were distributed to various Eastern European countries. The United States and Russia would work together in space with the [[Shuttle–Mir Program]], and again with the [[International Space Station]]. |
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==Retrospectives== |
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[[File:Atlantis-MIR-GPN-2000-001071.jpg|right|thumb|<center>''[[Mir]]'' & ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'' .. 1995</center>]] |
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The meaning and nature of the space race are subject to periodic retrospectives in American and other cultures. One such occurrence was in 2003 when ''Columbia'' was lost with crew during re-entry.<ref>Sandy Starr [http://www.spiked-online.com/articles/00000006DC5E.htm The end of the space race?]. Spiked: Science. 13 February 2003. Retrieved on 26 November 2011.</ref> Some more retrospectives took place with retirement of the U.S. Space Shuttle program in 2011 and the cancellation of [[Project Constellation]] in 2010.<ref>Bob Collins [http://minnesota.publicradio.org/collections/special/columns/news_cut/archive/2010/01/the_end_of_the_space_race.shtml The end of the 'space race'?]. (2010). MPR News. Minnesota.publicradio.org. Retrieved on 26 November 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abcactionnews.com/dpp/news/national/nasa-bill-passed-by-congress-would-allow-for-one-additional-shuttle-flight-in-2011|title=NASA bill passed by Congress would allow for one additional shuttle flight in 2011|author=Jim Abrams|agency=Associated Press|date=29 September 2010|accessdate=30 November 2010}}</ref> |
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==Legacy== |
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===Advances in technology and education=== |
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American concerns that they had fallen behind the Soviet Union in the race to space led quickly to a push by legislators and educators for greater emphasis on mathematics and the physical sciences in American schools. The United States' [[National Defense Education Act]] of 1958 increased funding for these goals from childhood education through the post-graduate level. To this day over 1,200 American high schools retain their own [[planetarium]] installations, a situation unparalleled in any other country{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} and a direct consequence of the Space Race{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}. |
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The scientists educated through these efforts helped develop technologies that have been adapted for use in the kitchen, in transportation systems, in athletics, and in many other areas of modern life. Dried fruits and ready-to-eat foods (in particular food sterilization and package sealing techniques), stay-dry clothing, and even no-fog ski goggles have their roots in space science.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} |
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[[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|International Space Station in 2010]] |
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Today over a thousand artificial satellites orbit Earth, relaying communications data around the planet and facilitating [[remote sensing]] of data on weather, vegetation, and human movements for the nations who employ them. In addition, much of the micro-technology that fuels everyday activities, from time-keeping to enjoying music, derives from research initially driven by the Space Race.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} |
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Even with all the technological advances since the first Sputnik was launched, the original Soviet [[R-7 Semyorka]] rocket, which marked the beginning of the space race, is still in use today. It services the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) as the launcher for both the [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] and [[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress]] spacecrafts. Most notably, during the post Space Race era it ferries both Russian and American crews to and from the station. |
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===Environment=== |
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An unintended consequence of the Space Race is that it facilitated the [[environmental movement]], as this was the first time in history that humans could see their homeworld as it really appears-–the first color pictures from space showed a fragile blue planet bordered by the blackness of space.<ref name="Poole bracket">Poole (2008), p. 13</ref> Pictures such as ''Apollo 8's'' ''[[Earthrise]]'', which showed a crescent Earth peeking over the lunar surface, and ''Apollo 17'''s ''[[The Blue Marble]]'', which for the first-time-ever showed a full circular Earth, became iconic to the environmental movement.<ref name="Poole bracket"/> The first [[Earth Day]] was partially triggered by the Apollo 8 photo.<ref>Poole (2008), p. 152</ref> Astronauts returning from space missions also commented on how fragile the Earth looked from space, further fueling calls for better stewardship of the only home humans have—for now.<ref>Poole (2008), p. 108</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{Portal|Spaceflight}} |
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* [[Asian space race]] |
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**[[India–Pakistan relations#Technological races and politics|India–Pakistan space race]] |
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* [[List of space exploration milestones, 1957-1969]] |
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* [[Moon Shot]] |
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* [[Spaceflight records]] |
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* [[Timeline of Solar System exploration]] |
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* [[Timeline of space exploration]] |
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* [[Timeline of Space Race firsts]] |
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* [[Woods Hole Conference]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist|colwidth=20em}} |
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==References== |
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}} |
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| pages = 100–101 |
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* {{cite book |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal |
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|isbn= 0-525-94571-7 |
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* {{cite book |
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|quote= The link is to the 2004 edition, pages differ, but content the same.}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|location= Chatham, United Kingdom |
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|isbn= 978-0-09-192837-7 |
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|url= |
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|first= Dan |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title= Strategic Air Command: People, Aircraft, and Missiles |
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|last= Polmar |
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|first= Norman |
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|coauthors= Timothy M. Laur |
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|edition=2 |
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|year= 1990 |
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|publisher= Nautical and Publishing Company of America |
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|location= Baltimore |
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|isbn=0-933852-77-0 |
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|url=}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title= Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth |
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|last= Poole |
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|year= 2008 |
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|publisher = Yale University |
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|location= New Haven, Connecticut |
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|isbn= 978-0-300-13766-8 |
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|url= http://books.google.com/?id=5qHuAAAAMAAJ&dq=isbn=9780300137668&cd=1 |
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|first= Robert |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title= The Race: The uncensored story of how America beat Russia to the Moon |
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|last= Schefter |
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|first= James |
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|year= 1999 |
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|publisher= [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |
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|location= New York |
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|isbn= 0-385-49253-7 |
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|url= http://books.google.com/?id=Y7m6edRkG2EC&dq=isbn%3A0385492537 |
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}} |
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* {{cite encyclopedia |
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|author=Schmitz, David F. |
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|editor=Whiteclay Chambers, John |
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|encyclopedia=The Oxford Companion to American Military History |
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|title=Cold War (1945–91): Causes |
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|url= http://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-American-Military-History/dp/0195071980/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1280768501&sr=1-1#reader_0195071980 |
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|accessdate=16 June 2008 |
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|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press |
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|isbn=0-19-507198-0}} |
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* {{Cite book |
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|first=Robert C., Jr. |
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|last=Seamans |
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|publisher=NASA History Office |
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|title=Report of Apollo 204 Review Board |
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|chapter=Findings, Determinations And Recommendations |
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|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/Apollo204/find.html |
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|date=5 April 1967 |
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|accessdate=7 October 2007}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title= Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge |
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|last= Siddiqi |
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|first= Asif A. |
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|year= 2003a |
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|publisher= [[University Press of Florida]] |
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|location= Gainsville |
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|isbn= 0-8130-2627-X |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
|||
|title= The Soviet Space Race with Apollo |
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|last= Siddiqi |
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|first= Asif A. |
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|year= 2003b |
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|publisher= [[University Press of Florida]] |
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|location= Gainsville |
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|isbn= 0-8130-2628-8 |
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|url= |
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}} |
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* {{cite book |
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|title=Britain and Ballistic Missile Defence, 1942–2002 |
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|last=Stocker |
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|first=Jeremy |
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|year=2004 |
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|publisher=Frank Case |
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|location=London |
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|isbn= 0-7146-5696-8 |
|||
|pages=12–24 |
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|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Dlhwx7atBr0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=isbn=0714656968&cd=1#v=onepage&q |
|||
}} |
|||
* {{cite book |
|||
|title= The Moonlandings: An Eyewitness Account |
|||
|last= Turnhill |
|||
|first= Reginald |
|||
|year= 2004 |
|||
|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |
|||
|location= New York |
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|isbn=0-521-81595-9 |
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|url= http://www.amazon.com/Moonlandings-Eyewitness-Account-Reginald-Turnill/dp/052103535X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1280339638&sr=1-1 |
|||
}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2005-07-02|Space_Race_Part_1.ogg|Space_Race_Part_2.ogg|...}} |
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* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollomon/apollo3.pdf Scanned letter from Wernher Von Braun to Vice President Johnson] |
|||
* [http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/101space/101space.htm ''"America's Space Program: Exploring a New Frontier"'', a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan] |
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* [http://english.pravda.ru/main/2002/12/03/40312.html Why Did the USSR Lose the Moon Race?] from [[Pravda]], 2002-12-03 |
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* [http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/gal114.htm Space Race Exhibition] at the [[Smithsonian Institute|Smithsonian]] [[National Air and Space Museum]] |
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* [http://www.thespacerace.com/ TheSpaceRace.com] – Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs |
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* [http://www.historyshots.com/space/timeline.cfm Timeline of the Space Race to the Moon 1960 – 1969] |
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* [http://www.strangehorizons.com/2004/20040503/shadows.shtml Shadows of the Soviet Space Age, Paul Lucas] |
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* [http://www.russianspaceweb.com/chronology_moon_race.html Chronology:Moon Race] at russianspaceweb.com |
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* [http://www.deepcold.com/ Artwork representing the cold war in space] |
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{{Public sector space agencies}} |
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{{Cold War}} |
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[[Category:Presidency of Richard Nixon]] |
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Revision as of 23:06, 27 April 2013
John kennidy is ugly