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==Factors governing anautogeny==
==Factors governing anautogeny==
Anautogenous animals generally reach adulthood without sufficient reserves of nutrients (particularly [[protein]]) to produce viable eggs, necessitating additional feeding as adults. A high-protein meal, generally of blood, allows the production of [[yolk]] to nourish the eggs and makes reproduction possible.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nutritional regulation of vitellogenesis in mosquitoes: implications for anautogeny|last=Attardo|first=GM|last2=Hansen|first2=IA|last3=Raikhel|first3=AS|journal=[[Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology]]|date=July 2005|volume=35|number=7|pages=661–75|pmid=15894184|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15894184|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref> This blood is typically obtained through [[Ectoparasite|ectoparasitism]] on large vertebrates.
Anautogenous animals generally reach adulthood without sufficient reserves of nutrients (particularly [[protein]]) to produce viable eggs, necessitating additional feeding as adults. A high-protein meal, generally of blood, allows the production of [[yolk]] to nourish the eggs and makes reproduction possible.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nutritional regulation of vitellogenesis in mosquitoes: implications for anautogeny|last=Attardo|first=Geoffrey M|last2=Hansen|first2=Immo A|last3=Raikhel|first3=Alexander S|journal=[[Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology]]|date=July 2005|volume=35|number=7|pages=661–75|pmid=15894184|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15894184|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref> This blood is typically obtained through [[Ectoparasite|ectoparasitism]] on large vertebrates.


However, even individuals who do have the reserves needed to produce viable eggs may still be unable to reproduce without a blood meal, because egg maturation in many anautogenous species depends upon [[hormone]]s that are released when blood is consumed.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Multiple factors contribute to anautogenous reproduction by the mosquito Aedes aegypti|journal=[[Journal of Insect Physiology]]|last=Gulia-Nuss|first=M|last2=Elliot|first2=A|last3=Brown|first3=MR|last4=Strand|first4=MR|date=November 2015|volume=82|pages=8–16|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26255841|accessdate=25 June 2016|pmid=26255841}}</ref> Further, females with certain [[genotype]]s are anautogenous by default but can be triggered to reproduce autogenously by [[mating]] with a male, possibly because of hormones released or acquired during mating or possibly because of some nutritional supplement the mating provides.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biology of Blood-Sucking Insects|last=Lehane|first=Michael|publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]]|pages=107–8|year=2012|isbn=9789401179539|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OB8yBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref>
However, even individuals who do have the reserves needed to produce viable eggs may still be unable to reproduce without a blood meal, because egg maturation in many anautogenous species depends upon [[hormone]]s that are released when blood is consumed.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Multiple factors contribute to anautogenous reproduction by the mosquito Aedes aegypti|journal=[[Journal of Insect Physiology]]|last=Gulia-Nuss|first=M|last2=Elliot|first2=A|last3=Brown|first3=MR|last4=Strand|first4=MR|date=November 2015|volume=82|pages=8–16|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26255841|accessdate=25 June 2016|pmid=26255841}}</ref> Further, females with certain [[genotype]]s are anautogenous by default but can be triggered to reproduce autogenously by [[mating]] with a male, possibly because of hormones released or acquired during mating or possibly because of some nutritional supplement the mating provides.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Biology of Blood-Sucking Insects|last=Lehane|first=Michael|publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]]|pages=107–8|year=2012|isbn=9789401179539|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OB8yBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref>
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==Physiological mechanisms==
==Physiological mechanisms==
In non-[[mammal]]ian animals, egg maturation begins with [[vitellogenesis]], the deposition of yolk proteins triggered by the release of juvenile hormones. In anautogenous mosquitoes, yolk production genes are strongly activated after a blood meal through a process involving the [[target of rapamycin]] signal pathway.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Target of rapamycin-mediated amino acid signaling in mosquito anautogeny|last=Hansen|first=Immo A|last2=Attardo|first2=Geoffrey M|last3=Park|first3=Jong-Hwa|last4=Peng|first4=Quan|last5=Raikhel|first5=Alexander S|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|date=July 2004|volume=101|number=29|pages=10626–31|doi=10.1073/pnas.0403460101|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/101/29/10626.full|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref> In particular, certain [[amino acid]]s found in the blood proteins seem to be necessary for the activation of the [[vitellogenin]] gene.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Identification of two cationic amino acid transporters required for nutritional signaling during mosquito reproduction|last=Attardo|first=GM|last2=Hansen|first2=IA|last3=Shiao|first3=SH||last4=Raikhel|first4=AS|journal=[[The Journal of Experimental Biology]]|date=August 2006|volume=209|number=16|pages=3071–8|pmid=16888056|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16888056|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref>
In non-[[mammal]]ian animals, egg maturation begins with [[vitellogenesis]], the deposition of yolk proteins triggered by the release of juvenile hormones. In anautogenous mosquitoes, yolk production genes are strongly activated after a blood meal through a process involving the [[target of rapamycin]] signal pathway.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Target of rapamycin-mediated amino acid signaling in mosquito anautogeny|last=Hansen|first=Immo A|last2=Attardo|first2=Geoffrey M|last3=Park|first3=Jong-Hwa|last4=Peng|first4=Quan|last5=Raikhel|first5=Alexander S|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|date=July 2004|volume=101|number=29|pages=10626–31|doi=10.1073/pnas.0403460101|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/101/29/10626.full|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref> In particular, certain [[amino acid]]s found in the blood proteins seem to be necessary for the activation of the [[vitellogenin]] gene.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Identification of two cationic amino acid transporters required for nutritional signaling during mosquito reproduction|last=Attardo|first=Geoffrey M|last2=Hansen|first2=Immo A|last3=Shiao|first3=SH||last4=Raikhel|first4=Alexander S|journal=[[The Journal of Experimental Biology]]|date=August 2006|volume=209|number=16|pages=3071–8|pmid=16888056|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16888056|accessdate=25 June 2016}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 14:05, 6 July 2016

A female Anopheles minimus mosquito obtaining a blood meal from a human host to support its anautogenous reproduction.

In biology (particularly entomology), anautogeny is a reproductive strategy in which an adult female must eat a particular sort of meal (generally vertebrate blood) before laying eggs in order for her eggs to mature.[1] This behavior is most common among insects (particularly dipterans such as mosquitoes),[2] though it is also seen in ticks and other arthropods.[3] Anautogenous animals often serve as vectors for infectious disease in their hosts because of their contact with hosts' blood. The opposite trait (needing no particular food as an adult to successfully reproduce) is known as autogeny.

Factors governing anautogeny

Anautogenous animals generally reach adulthood without sufficient reserves of nutrients (particularly protein) to produce viable eggs, necessitating additional feeding as adults. A high-protein meal, generally of blood, allows the production of yolk to nourish the eggs and makes reproduction possible.[4] This blood is typically obtained through ectoparasitism on large vertebrates.

However, even individuals who do have the reserves needed to produce viable eggs may still be unable to reproduce without a blood meal, because egg maturation in many anautogenous species depends upon hormones that are released when blood is consumed.[5] Further, females with certain genotypes are anautogenous by default but can be triggered to reproduce autogenously by mating with a male, possibly because of hormones released or acquired during mating or possibly because of some nutritional supplement the mating provides.[6]

Individuals of the same species can be found to exhibit autogeny or anautogeny depending on their genotypes as well as on environmental circumstances and the type and amount of nourishment they obtained in their larval stage.[7][8] Mathematical models have indicated that anautogeny can be an advantageous strategy for insect reproduction under favorable conditions (particularly when hosts are easy to find, when the insects have a good chance of surviving the blood-feeding, and when anautogeny contributes to increased fecundity).[9]

Physiological mechanisms

In non-mammalian animals, egg maturation begins with vitellogenesis, the deposition of yolk proteins triggered by the release of juvenile hormones. In anautogenous mosquitoes, yolk production genes are strongly activated after a blood meal through a process involving the target of rapamycin signal pathway.[10] In particular, certain amino acids found in the blood proteins seem to be necessary for the activation of the vitellogenin gene.[11]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Anautogenous". Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  2. ^ "Dipteran". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  3. ^ Feldman-Muhsam, B (June 1973). "Autogeny in Soft Ticks of the Genus Ornithodoros". Journal of Parasitology. 59 (3): 536–539. doi:10.2307/3278790. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  4. ^ Attardo, Geoffrey M; Hansen, Immo A; Raikhel, Alexander S (July 2005). "Nutritional regulation of vitellogenesis in mosquitoes: implications for anautogeny". Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 35 (7): 661–75. PMID 15894184. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  5. ^ Gulia-Nuss, M; Elliot, A; Brown, MR; Strand, MR (November 2015). "Multiple factors contribute to anautogenous reproduction by the mosquito Aedes aegypti". Journal of Insect Physiology. 82: 8–16. PMID 26255841. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  6. ^ Lehane, Michael (2012). Biology of Blood-Sucking Insects. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 107–8. ISBN 9789401179539. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  7. ^ Engelmann, Franz (2015). The Physiology of Insect Reproduction (revised ed.). Elsevier. pp. 124–7. ISBN 9781483186535. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  8. ^ Flatt, Thomas; Heyland, Andreas (2011). Mechanisms of Life History Evolution. Oxford University Press. p. 130. ISBN 9780199568765. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  9. ^ Tsuji, N; Okazawa, T; Yamamura, N (July 1990). "Autogenous and anautogenous mosquitoes: a mathematical analysis of reproductive strategies". Journal of Medical Entomology. 27 (4): 446–53. PMID 1974928. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  10. ^ Hansen, Immo A; Attardo, Geoffrey M; Park, Jong-Hwa; Peng, Quan; Raikhel, Alexander S (July 2004). "Target of rapamycin-mediated amino acid signaling in mosquito anautogeny". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (29): 10626–31. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403460101. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  11. ^ Attardo, Geoffrey M; Hansen, Immo A; Shiao, SH; Raikhel, Alexander S (August 2006). "Identification of two cationic amino acid transporters required for nutritional signaling during mosquito reproduction". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 209 (16): 3071–8. PMID 16888056. Retrieved 25 June 2016. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
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