The '''life sciences''' comprise the [[fields of science]] that involves the scientific study of [[living organism]]s – such as [[microorganism]]s, [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[human being]]s – as well as related considerations like [[bioethics]]. While [[biology]] remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, [[Technology|technological]] advances in [[molecular biology]] and [[biotechnology]] have led to a burgeoning of specializations and [[interdisciplinary]] fields.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biocom Life Sciences Association California|url=https://www.biocom.org|website=Biocom}}</ref><ref name=NYLS>{{cite web|title=Life Sciences|url=http://esd.ny.gov/whynewyork/LifeSciences.html|work=[[Empire State Development Corporation]]|publisher=[[Government of New York (state)|Government of New York]]|accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref>
The '''life sciences''' comprise the [[fields of science]] that involve the scientific study of [[living organism]]s – such as [[microorganism]]s, [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[human being]]s – as well as related considerations like [[bioethics]]. While [[biology]] remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, [[Technology|technological]] advances in [[molecular biology]] and [[biotechnology]] have led to a burgeoning of specializations and [[interdisciplinary]] fields.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biocom Life Sciences Association California|url=https://www.biocom.org|website=Biocom}}</ref><ref name=NYLS>{{cite web|title=Life Sciences|url=http://esd.ny.gov/whynewyork/LifeSciences.html|work=[[Empire State Development Corporation]]|publisher=[[Government of New York (state)|Government of New York]]|accessdate=3 February 2014}}</ref>
Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, [[zoology]] is the study of [[animals]], while [[botany]] is the study of [[plants]]. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as [[anatomy]] and [[genetics]]. Yet other fields are interested in [[technological]] advances involving living things, such as [[bio-engineering]]. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the [[mind]]{{spaced ndash}}[[neuroscience]].
Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, [[zoology]] is the study of [[animals]], while [[botany]] is the study of [[plants]]. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as [[anatomy]] and [[genetics]]. Yet other fields are interested in [[technological]] advances involving living things, such as [[bio-engineering]]. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the [[mind]]{{spaced ndash}}[[neuroscience]].
Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things, such as bio-engineering. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience.
The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. They have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.
There is considerable overlap between many of the topics of study in the life sciences.
Biology – burst and eclectic field, composed of many branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research, consolidating it into a single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the synthesis and creation of new species. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable and vital condition. Here are some of biology's major branches:
Agriculture – study of producing crops and raising livestock, with an emphasis on practical applications
Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans
Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level
Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics
Systems biology - study of the integration and dependencies of various components within a biological system, with particular focus upon the role of metabolic pathways and cell-signaling strategies in physiology.
Toxicology - study of the effects of chemicals on living organisms
Zoology – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior.
Medicine – applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Some of its branches are:
Splanchnology – branch of medicine that deals with visceral organs.
Surgery – branch of medicine that uses operative techniques to investigate or treat both disease and injury, or to help improve bodily function or appearance.
Biocomputers – biocomputers use systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biocomputers has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology.
Bioelectronics – the electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems[9] like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field.
Bioinformatics – interdisciplinary scientific field that develops methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data. A major activity in bioinformatics is to develop software tools to generate useful biological knowledge.
Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
Biopolymer – polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric biomolecules. Since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides (RNA and DNA), which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotidemonomers; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures.[17][18][19][20]
Food science – applied science devoted to the study of food. Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce and conserve these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, study of the effects of food on the human body, sensory evaluation of products using panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological, physical (texture and rheology) and chemical testing.[24][25][26][27]
Genomics – applies recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes (the complete set of DNA within a single cell of an organism).[28][29] The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome.[30] In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology or genetics and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks.[31][32]
Health sciences – The health sciences are a key branch of the life sciences, comprising all divisions of medicine and medical sciences.
Immunogenetics – Immunogenetics or immungenetics is the branch of medical research that explores the relationship between the immune system and genetics. Autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, are complex genetic traits which result from defects in the immune system. Identification of genes defining the immune defects may identify new target genes for therapeutic approaches. Alternatively, genetic variations can also help to define the immunological pathway leading to disease.
Immunotherapy – Immunotherapy is a medical term defined as the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response".[33] Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies.
Kinesiology – Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applications of kinesiology to human health include: biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise.[34] Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments.[35] Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques.[36][37]
Medical device – A medical device is an instrument, apparatus, implant, in vitro reagent, or similar or related article that is used to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or other conditions, and does not achieve its purposes through chemical action within or on the body (which would make it a drug).[38] Whereas medicinal products (also called pharmaceuticals) achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means, medical devices act by other means like physical, mechanical, or thermal means.
Medical imaging – ParasagittalMRI of the head, with aliasing artifacts (nose and forehead appear at the back of the head) Medical imaging is the technique and process used to create images of the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical purposes (medical procedures seeking to reveal, diagnose, or examine disease) or medical science (including the study of normal anatomy and physiology). Although imaging of removed organs and tissues can be performed for medical reasons, such procedures are not usually referred to as medical imaging, but rather are a part of pathology.[39] Examples of medical imaging include:[40]
Medical social work – Medical social work is a sub-discipline of social work, also known as hospital social work. Medical social workers typically work in a hospital, skilled nursing facility or hospice, have a graduate degree in the field, and work with patients and their families in need of psychosocial help. Medical social workers assess the psychosocial functioning of patients and families and intervene as necessary. Interventions may include connecting patients and families to necessary resources and supports in the community; providing psychotherapy, supportive counselling, or grief counselling; or helping a patient to expand and strengthen their network of social supports.
Neuroethology – Neuroethology is the evolutionary and comparative approach study of animal behavior and the understanding of an animal's nervous system.[41]
Optogenetics – Optogenetics is a neuromodulation technique employed in neuroscience that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control and monitor the activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time.[42] The key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins. Spatially-precise neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like channelrhodopsin, halorhodopsin, and archaerhodopsin, while temporally-precise recordings can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors like Clomeleon, Mermaid, and SuperClomeleon.[43]
Pharmacology – A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including neuropharmacology, renal pharmacology, human metabolism, intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation Pharmacology is the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action,[46] where a drug can be broadly defined as any man-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function. If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals.
Proteomics – Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions.[47][48] Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins,[49] produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes.
Sports science – studies the application of treatment and prevention of injuries related to sports medicine. The study of sport science traditionally incorporates areas of physiology, psychology, and biomechanics but also includes other topics such as nutrition and diet.
^Panksepp J (1992). "A role for "affective neuroscience" in understanding stress: the case of separation distress circuitry". In Puglisi-Allegra S, Oliverio A (eds.). Psychobiology of Stress. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. pp. 41–58. ISBN0-7923-0682-1.
^Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, "Biodynamic agriculture today", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), Organic Agriculture: A global perspective, Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing
^Richard Harwood, former C.S. Mott Chair for Sustainable Agriculture at Michigan State University, calls the biodynamic movement the "first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philosophies [in sustainable agriculture] (Harwood 1990; p.6).
^Angerer, Jürgen; Ewers, Ulrich; Wilhelm, Michael (2007). "Human biomonitoring: State of the art". International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 210 (3–4): 201–28. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.01.024. PMID17376741.
^Mohanty, A.K., et al., Natural Fibers, Biopolymers, and Biocomposites (CRC Press, 2005)
^Chandra, R., and Rustgi, R., "Biodegradable Polymers", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 23, p. 1273 (1998)
^Meyers, M.A., et al., "Biological Materials: Structure & Mechanical Properties", Progress in Materials Science, Vol. 53, p. 1 (2008)
^Kumar, A., et al., "Smart Polymers: Physical Forms & Bioengineering Applications", Progress in Polymer Science, Vol. 32, p.1205 (2007)
^What is computational neuroscience? Patricia S. Churchland, Christof Koch, Terrence J. Sejnowski. in Computational Neuroscience pp.46-55. Edited by Eric L. Schwartz. 1993. MIT Press [1]
^Bodo Rosenhahn, Reinhard Klette and Dimitris Metaxas (eds.). Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. Volume 36 in 'Computational Imaging and Vision', Springer, Dordrecht, 2007
^Ahmed Elgammal, Bodo Rosenhahn, and Reinhard Klette (eds.) Human Motion - Understanding, Modelling, Capture and Animation. 2nd Workshop, in conjunction with ICCV 2007, Rio de Janeiro, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, LNCS 4814, Springer, Berlin, 2007
^Mancuso, J. J.; Kim, J.; Lee, S.; Tsuda, S.; Chow, N. B. H.; Augustine, G. J. (2010). "Optogenetic probing of functional brain circuitry". Experimental Physiology. 96 (1): 26–33. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2010.055731. PMID21056968.
^Ermak G., Modern Science & Future Medicine (second edition), 164 p., 2013
^Anderson NL, Anderson NG (1998). "Proteome and proteomics: new technologies, new concepts, and new words". Electrophoresis. 19 (11): 1853–61. doi:10.1002/elps.1150191103. PMID9740045.
^Blackstock WP, Weir MP (1999). "Proteomics: quantitative and physical mapping of cellular proteins". Trends Biotechnol. 17 (3): 121–7. doi:10.1016/S0167-7799(98)01245-1. PMID10189717.
^Marc R. Wilkins, Christian Pasquali, Ron D. Appel, Keli Ou, Olivier Golaz, Jean-Charles Sanchez, Jun X. Yan, Andrew. A. Gooley, Graham Hughes, Ian Humphery-Smith, Keith L. Williams & Denis F. Hochstrasser (1996). "From Proteins to Proteomes: Large Scale Protein Identification by Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis and Arnino Acid Analysis". Nature Biotechnology. 14 (1): 61–65. doi:10.1038/nbt0196-61. PMID9636313.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Silverman, Wade H. (1 September 1985). "The evolving mental health professions: Psychiatric social work, clinical psychology, psychiatry, and psychiatric nursing". The journal of mental health administration. 12 (2): 28–31. ISSN0092-8623.
^"The mission of the APA [American Psychological Association] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives"; APA (2010). About APA. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
Further reading
Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN0824708245.
