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==Habitat and ecology==
==Habitat and ecology==
''Exophiala pisciphila'' is commonly found in soil<ref name="brady" />, plants<ref name="plant" /> and water<ref name="wang" /> in [[North America]], [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Australia]].<ref name= "black yeast" /> ''E. pisciphila'' occurs in cold-blooded vertebrae such as various commercially cultivated fish and amphibians with low host specificity.<ref name="hoog" /> Captive fish are especially susceptible due to the confined space of aquariums and accumulation of fungal particles.<ref name="bladder" /> Decorative pieces, stones or contaminated food in aquariums can all be reservoirs of ''E. pisciphila''.<ref name="bladder" /> This fungus can also be found in harsh environments like heavy metal polluted habitats due to its ability to defend against the toxicity of such metals.<ref name="stress" /> When this fungus colonizes in plant roots, it is able to protect the plant from heavy metal ions.<ref name="maize" /> [[symbiosis|Symbiotic]] relationships with host plants also allow for improved growth performance and plant survival rate in drought conditions.<ref name="environment" /><ref name="drought" />
''Exophiala pisciphila'' is commonly found in soil<ref name="brady" />, plants<ref name="plant" /> and water<ref name="wang" /> in [[North America]], [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Australia]].<ref name= "black yeast" /> ''E. pisciphila'' occurs in cold-blooded vertebrae such as various commercially cultivated fish and amphibians with low host specificity.<ref name="hoog" /> Captive fish are especially susceptible due to the confined space of aquariums and accumulation of fungal particles.<ref name="bladder" /> Decorative pieces, stones or contaminated food in aquariums can all be reservoirs of ''E. pisciphila''.<ref name="bladder" /> This fungus can also be found in harsh environments like heavy metal polluted habitats due to its high tolerance of such metals.<ref name="stress" /> When this fungus colonizes in plant roots, it enhances plant tolerance to heavy metal ions.<ref name="maize" /> [[symbiosis|Symbiotic]] relationships with host plants also allow for improved growth performance and plant survival rate in drought conditions.<ref name="environment" /><ref name="drought" />


==Growth and morphology==
==Growth and morphology==
As is common amongst [[black yeast|black yeasts]], ''Exophiala pisciphila'' is an [[anamorphic]], [[filamentous fungi]].<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /> ''E. pisciphila'' forms slow growing colonies approximately {{convert|20-35|mm|in}} in size which is similar to other species in the genus, ''E. salmonis'' and ''E. brunnea''.<ref name="ajello" /> The texture of the colony appears as dry and fluffy due to the formation on aerial [[hyphae]] in mature colonies.<ref name="ajello" /> The front colour is grey to green black and black on the reserve.<ref name="hoog" />
''Exophiala pisciphila'' is an [[anamorphic]] fungus that exhibits both filamentous and yeast-like growth.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /> Due to its variable growth forms and the dark pigmentation of its cell walls, it is considered a member of the descriptive grouping of similar fungi known as the [[black yeast]]s.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /> ''E. pisciphila'' forms slow growing colonies approximately {{convert|20-35|mm|in}} in size which is similar to other species in the genus, ''E. salmonis'' and ''E. brunnea''.<ref name="ajello" /> The texture of the colony is dry and fluffy due to the formation on aerial [[hyphae]] in mature colonies.<ref name="ajello" /> The upper surface is grey to green black in colour while the reverse surface tends to be black.<ref name="hoog" />


Growth occurs on various media including malt extract agar (MA), oatmeal agar (OA), [[Sabourand's dextrose agar]] (SA), corn meal agar (CMA), [[Czapek medium|Czapeck's solution agar]], [[potato dextrose agar]] (PDA) and [[nutrient agar]] (NA).<ref name="cheung" /> Optimal growth occurs on [[potato dextrose agar|PDA]] and MA with the most aerial hyphae presenting dome shaped colonies.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /><ref name="cheung" /> Media with less optimal growth present as flat colonies.<ref name="cheung" /> A distinguishing feature of this fungus from others in the genus is its ability to grow on [[arabitol|L-arabinitol]].<ref name="hoog" />
Growth occurs on various media including malt extract agar (MA), oatmeal agar (OA), [[Sabourand's dextrose agar]] (SA), corn meal agar (CMA), [[Czapek medium|Czapeck's solution agar]], [[potato dextrose agar]] (PDA) and [[nutrient agar]] (NA).<ref name="cheung" /> Optimal growth occurs on [[potato dextrose agar|PDA]] and MA with the most aerial hyphae presenting dome shaped colonies.<ref name="kwon-chung1992" /><ref name="cheung" /> Media with less optimal growth present as flat colonies.<ref name="cheung" /> A distinguishing feature of this fungus from others in the genus is its ability to grow on [[arabitol|L-arabinitol]].<ref name="hoog" />

Revision as of 18:28, 2 January 2019

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Exophiala pisciphila
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Fungi
Division:
Ascomycota
Subdivision:
Pezizomycotina
Class:
Eurotiomycetes
Order:
Chaetothyriales
Family:
Herpotrichiellaceae
Genus:
Exophiala
Species:
E. pisciphila
Binomial name
Exophiala pisciphila
McGinnis & Ajello (1974)

Exophiala pisciphila is a mesophilic black yeast and member of the dark septate endophytes. This saprotrophic fungus is found commonly in marine and soil environments. It is abundant in harsh environments like soil contaminated with heavy metals. E. pisciphila forms symbiotic relationships with various plants by colonizing on roots, conferring resistance to drought and heavy metal stress. It is an opportunistic pathogen that commonly causes infections in captive fish and amphibians, while rarely causing disease in humans. Secondary metabolites produced by this species have potential clinical antibiotic and antiretroviral applications.

History and taxonomy

In 1969, Nikola Fijan first described a systemic mycosis outbreak in channel catfish from a pond in Alabama and identified it as Exophiala salmonis.[1] In 1974, Michael McGinnis and Libero Ajello reevaluated the fungus and identified it as a new species Exophiala pisciphila.[2] The specific epithet pisciphila is a linguistic barbarism, combining the Latin word piscis meaning "fish" with the Greek suffix -philos (φίλος) meaning "loving".[3]

Habitat and ecology

Exophiala pisciphila is commonly found in soil[4], plants[5] and water[6] in North America, Netherlands, United Kingdom, and Australia.[7] E. pisciphila occurs in cold-blooded vertebrae such as various commercially cultivated fish and amphibians with low host specificity.[8] Captive fish are especially susceptible due to the confined space of aquariums and accumulation of fungal particles.[9] Decorative pieces, stones or contaminated food in aquariums can all be reservoirs of E. pisciphila.[9] This fungus can also be found in harsh environments like heavy metal polluted habitats due to its high tolerance of such metals.[10] When this fungus colonizes in plant roots, it enhances plant tolerance to heavy metal ions.[11] Symbiotic relationships with host plants also allow for improved growth performance and plant survival rate in drought conditions.[12][13]

Growth and morphology

Exophiala pisciphila is an anamorphic fungus that exhibits both filamentous and yeast-like growth.[14] Due to its variable growth forms and the dark pigmentation of its cell walls, it is considered a member of the descriptive grouping of similar fungi known as the black yeasts.[14] E. pisciphila forms slow growing colonies approximately 20–35 millimetres (0.79–1.38 in) in size which is similar to other species in the genus, E. salmonis and E. brunnea.[2] The texture of the colony is dry and fluffy due to the formation on aerial hyphae in mature colonies.[2] The upper surface is grey to green black in colour while the reverse surface tends to be black.[8]

Growth occurs on various media including malt extract agar (MA), oatmeal agar (OA), Sabourand's dextrose agar (SA), corn meal agar (CMA), Czapeck's solution agar, potato dextrose agar (PDA) and nutrient agar (NA).[15] Optimal growth occurs on PDA and MA with the most aerial hyphae presenting dome shaped colonies.[14][15] Media with less optimal growth present as flat colonies.[15] A distinguishing feature of this fungus from others in the genus is its ability to grow on L-arabinitol.[8]

Ideal growth conditions for E. pisciphila occur between 20–30 °C (68–86 °F), where maximum growth occurs at 37 °C (99 °F).[14][2] This differentiates it from E. jeanselmei which has similar physiology otherwise.[14]

Reproduction for this species occurs asexually by conidiation which was observed to occur through various means in developing colonies.[8] E. pisciphila have conidia that are flask-shaped, smooth, hyaline and have yellow-brown walls.[4] The differ from E. salmonis and E. brunnea as they are smaller and aseptate.[8] The conidia are produced either by (1) pre-existing conidia, (2) mature hyphae or (3) the terminal end of specialized structures known as annellides.[15] Growth of the colony is typical of most fungi imperfecti in that it follows a cyclic pattern of conidia germinating to produce hyphae, then conidiation, melanization and continual mycelial development.[15] The hyphae walls of this species contain melanin which is proposed to protect it from heavy metals.[16] The developing colonies also produce aerial hyphae that appear as hyphal strands that intertwine in a rope-like fashion to extend upward from the mycelium.[15] The aerial hyphae could serve as survival structures during harsh growth conditions.[15]

Pathology

Unlike closely related species such as E. jeanselmei and E. dermatitidis, E. pisciphila rarely causes disease in humans primarily due to its inability to tolerate high temperatures.[8] One case of human disease was reported in Brazil where a patient undergoing immunosuppressive therapy for a liver transplant became infected with this opportunistic fungus which caused skin papules.[17] The infection did not disseminate and was treated within a month.[17] Uncontrolled asthmatic patients may also be affected by a hypersensitivity to E. pisciphila antigens known as allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis.[18] This fungus is most pathogenic to marine animals like freshwater and seawater fish with symptoms including skin lesions and nodules on visceral organs.[4] It can cause deadly infections in Atlantic salmon where the hyphae will invade the cranial structures and cause chronic inflammation.[19] Infections affecting the brain have been associated with abnormal swimming behaviours, depression and darkening of skin.[20] It has been reported in non-salmonid fish such as smooth dogfish,[16] channel catfish,[19] American sole,[19] Cardinal tetra,[21] cod,[4] triggerfish,[4] Japanese flounder,[8] King George whiting,[8] American plaice.[8] Systemic, lethal infections have been described in captive sharks[16] including the zebra,[19] bonnethead[22] and hammerhead sharks.[22] Elasmobranch infections are typically associated with severe tissue damage especially necrosis of the spleen and gills.[22] Other cold-blooded animals such as turtles, crabs, sea horses and frogs have been affected.[8] E. pisciphila has been implicated as a minor egg pathogen due to it's ability to infect a small number of nematode larvae.[23] Isolates have been identified from tongue ulcers of various animals such as horses and dogs.[7]

Uses

E. pisiciphila produces Exophilin A, a secondary metabolite identified as a new antibiotic against Gram-positive bacteria.[24] [25] Another secondary metabolite produced by this species is a newly discovered polyketide compound 1-(3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)-4-hydroxypentan-2-one which may have antimicrobial activity.[26][27] A novel fungal metabolite, Exophillic acid, has been isolated which acts as an inhibitor of HIV-1 integrase, an enzyme critical for replication and spread of HIV virus. This demonstrates its potential to be used for antiretroviral therapy.[28]

References

  1. ^ Fijan, Nikola (1969). "Systemic Mycosis in Channel Catfish". Bull. Wildlife Disease Assoc. 5: 109–110.
  2. ^ a b c d Mcginnis, M; Ajello, L (1974). "A New Species of Exophiala Isolated from Channel Catfish". Mycologia. 66 (3): 518–520.
  3. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com.
  4. ^ a b c d e Brady, B (1975). "CMI Descriptions of Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria No. 744". Bulletin of the Wildlife Disease Association. 75 (2): 105–106.
  5. ^ Zhan, Fangdong; He, Yongmei; Li, Tao; Yang, Yun-ya; Toor, Gurpal S.; Zhao, Zhiwei (17 October 2014). "Tolerance and Antioxidant Response of a Dark Septate Endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila, to Cadmium Stress". Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 94 (1): 96–102. doi:10.1007/s00128-014-1401-8.
  6. ^ Wang, L.; Yokoyama, K.; Miyaji, M.; Nishimura, K. (1 December 2001). "Identification, Classification, and Phylogeny of the Pathogenic Species Exophiala jeanselmei and Related Species by Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Gene Analysis". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 39 (12): 4462–4467. doi:10.1128/JCM.39.12.4462-4467.2001.
  7. ^ a b Hoog, G.S. de; Hermanides-Nijhof, E.J. (1977). "The black yeasts and allied Hyphomycetes". Studies in Mycology. 15.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j de Hoog, G.S.; Vicente, V.A.; Najafzadeh, M.J.; Harrak, M.J.; Badali, H.; Seyedmousavi, S. (2011-12-31). "Waterborne Exophiala species causing disease in cold-blooded animals". Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi. 27 (1): 46–72. doi:10.3767/003158511x614258. ISSN 0031-5850.
  9. ^ a b Řehulka, J; Kubátová, A; Hubka, V (March 2018). "Swim bladder mycosis in pretty tetra ( ) caused by and , and experimental verification of pathogenicity". Journal of Fish Diseases. 41 (3): 487–500. doi:10.1111/jfd.12750.
  10. ^ Zhan, Fangdong; He, Yongmei; Li, Yuan; Li, Tao; Yang, Yun-Ya; Toor, Gurpal S.; Zhao, Zhiwei (14 July 2015). "Subcellular distribution and chemical forms of cadmium in a dark septate endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 22 (22): 17897–17905. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5012-7.
  11. ^ Li, T.; Liu, M.J.; Zhang, X.T.; Zhang, H.B.; Sha, T.; Zhao, Z.W. (February 2011). "Improved tolerance of maize (Zea mays L.) to heavy metals by colonization of a dark septate endophyte (DSE) Exophiala pisciphila". Science of The Total Environment. 409 (6): 1069–1074. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.12.012.
  12. ^ Druzhinina, Irina S.; Kubicek, Christian P. (2016). Environmental and Microbial Relationships. Springer. ISBN 9783319295329.
  13. ^ Zhang, Q; Gong, M; Yuan, J (2017). "Dark Septate Endophyte Improves Drought Tolerance in Sorghum". International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 19 (1): 53-53.
  14. ^ a b c d e Kwon-Chung, K. June; Bennett, Joan E. (1992). Medical mycology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. ISBN 0812114639.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g Cheung, P; Gaskins, J (1986). "Exophilia psciphila: A study of its development". Mycopathologia. 93: 173–184.
  16. ^ a b c Zhan, Fangdong; He, Yongmei; Zu, Yanqun; Li, Tao; Zhao, Zhiwei (13 March 2011). "Characterization of melanin isolated from a dark septate endophyte (DSE), Exophiala pisciphila". World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 27 (10): 2483–2489. doi:10.1007/s11274-011-0712-8.
  17. ^ a b Sughayer, Maher; DeGirolami, Paola C.; Khettry, Urmila; Korzeniowski, Denise; Grumney, Anne; Pasarell, Lester; McGinnis, Michael R. (1991-05-01). "Human Infection Caused by Exophiala pisciphila: Case Report and Review". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 13 (3): 379–382. doi:10.1093/clinids/13.3.379. ISSN 1537-6591.
  18. ^ Kebbe, Jad; Mador, M. Jeffery (6 March 2016). "Exophiala pisciphila : a novel cause of allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis". Journal of Thoracic Disease. 8 (7): E538–E541. ISSN 2077-6624.
  19. ^ a b c d Hurst, Christon J. (2016). The Rasputin effect : when commensals and symbionts become parasitic. Springer. p. 112. ISBN 3319281704.
  20. ^ Buller, Nicky B (2014). Bacteria and fungi from fish and other aquatic animals : a practical identification manual (2 ed.). CABI. ISBN 1845938054.
  21. ^ Řehulka, J; Kolařík, M; Hubka, V (August 2017). "Disseminated infection due to E. pisciphila in Cardinal tetra,". Journal of Fish Diseases. 40 (8): 1015–1024. doi:10.1111/jfd.12577.
  22. ^ a b c Marancik, David P. (2011). "Disseminated fungal infection in two species of captive sharks". Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 42 (4): 686-694.
  23. ^ Poinar, George O. (2018). Diseases Of Nematodes. CRC Press. ISBN 9781351088367.
  24. ^ Doshida, Junko (1996). "Exophilin A, a New Antibiotic from a Marine Microorganism Exophiala pisciphila". The Journal of Antibiotics. 49: 1105–1109.
  25. ^ Bartonn, Sir Derek; Nakanishi, Kōji; Mori, Kenji; Meth-Cohn, Otto. Comprehensive natural products chemistry (1st ed.). Elsevier. p. 601. ISBN 0080431607.
  26. ^ Wang, Cui-Cui; Liu, Hai-Zhou; Liu, Ming; Zhang, Yu-Yan; Li, Tian-Tian; Lin, Xiu-Kun (30 March 2011). "Cytotoxic Metabolites from the Soil-Derived Fungus Exophiala Pisciphila". Molecules. 16 (4): 2796–2801. doi:10.3390/molecules16042796.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  27. ^ Tidgewell, Kevin; Clark, Benjamin R.; Gerwick, William H. (2010). "The Natural Products Chemistry of Cyanobacteria". Comprehensive Natural Products II. Elsevier: 141–188. doi:10.1016/b978-008045382-8.00041-1.
  28. ^ Ondeyka, John G; Deborah, Zink (2003). "Isolation, Structure and HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitory Activity of Exophillic Acid, a Novel Fungal Metabolite from Exophiala pisciphila". Journal of Antibiotics. 56 (12): 1018–1023.

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