Jump to content

Hakka people: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
TheSeez (talk | contribs)
422 edits
Mao wasn't Hakka, he was Hunanese (Xiang)
Line 21: Line 21:
During the reign of the Qing [[Kangxi]] Emperor, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the danger posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given money to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).
During the reign of the Qing [[Kangxi]] Emperor, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the danger posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given money to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).


The existing [[Cantonese people|Cantonese speaking inhabitants]] (''[[bengdi]]'', Chinese for native) of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the ''Punti'' aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups would lead to the [[Punti-Hakka Clan Wars]].
The existing [[Cantonese people|Cantonese speaking inhabitants]] (''[[bengdi]]'', Chinese for native) of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the ''[[Punti]]'' aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups would lead to the [[Punti-Hakka Clan Wars]].


Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members, identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.
Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members, identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.

Revision as of 15:37, 20 November 2006

For the language/dialect, see Hakka (linguistics). Hakka is also a genus of jumping spiders.
Hakka
客家
Regions with significant populations
Jiangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, India
Languages
Hakka + language(s) of their country of residence
Religion
Predominantly Confucianism, Taoism, Mahayana Buddhism, Traditional Chinese religion. Small but significant Christian population.
Related ethnic groups
Other Han Chinese
Hakka people
Chinese客家
Literal meaningguest families
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinkèjiā
Hakka
Romanizationhag2 ga24
File:China-Hukka.png
Henan, Shanxi, Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces

The Hakka are Han Chinese people whose ancestors are said to have originated in the Henan and Shanxi provinces of northern China over 1,700 years ago. In a series of migrations, the Hakka settled in Guangdong, Jiangxi and Fujian provinces in southern China, and then they went overseas to various Chinese enclaves throughout the world. The Hakka have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and Overseas Chinese history: they particularly have been a source of revolutionary and political leaders.

Migrations and group identification

The use of the term Hakka to describe this people is thought to be comparatively recent, dating to the Qing Dynasty (c. 17th century).

Their ancestors migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval, and the invasion of foreign conquerors, since the Jin Dynasty (265-420). Subsequent migrations occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty when China fragmented, during the middle of the Song Dynasty which saw massive depopulation of the north and a flood of refugees southward, when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital, at the fall of the Song to the Mongols in the Yuan Dynasty, and when the Ming Dynasty fell to the Manchu who formed the Qing Dynasty.

During the reign of the Qing Kangxi Emperor, the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the danger posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to what is now Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given money to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).

The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (bengdi, Chinese for native) of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. Conflict between the two groups grew, and it is thought that "Hakka" was a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups would lead to the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars.

Over time, the term "Hakka" was adopted by the newcomers to refer to themselves. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated at the time may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members, identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.

The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group amongst many who migrated southwards. Hakka people now are found in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered the archetypal spoken form of the language.

Although they frequently are distinctive in culture and language from the surrounding population, the Hakka are not considered a separate ethnic group by the Chinese people: they are seen as part of the majority Han Chinese. Indigenous settlers thought that the Hakka were not Chinese at all; but due to common ancestry, as traced in clan genealogies, Hakka descendants have been shown to be as Chinese as their neighbours. In fact, the Hakka are no more non-Han than are any other southern Han populations.[citation needed]

Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties.

With population movement, it is reasonable to assume that there is mixing among newcomers and the indigenous people. A recent study showed that there is genetic diversity in the general Han Chinese population. This suggests that the southward migration of people is borne out by these DNA studies, consistent with genealogical data. Further, two main groups of modern Han Chinese are observed: a northerly Han group with genetic affinity with northerly Mongoloid peoples, and a southerly Han group which have genetic affinity with the Gin Vietnamese. This finding is consistent with the migrations experienced during the history of the Hakka, from the north to the south of China. Even though this study is not a direct study of Hakka ancestry using DNA data, it does show that all modern southern Chinese have non-Han genotypes, due to a history of intermarriage with indigenous aboriginal peoples in the places in which they came to settle.

Social and cultural influences

With limited prospects in agriculture, Hakka men have turned -- more often than have other Chinese -- toward careers in the military or public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education and have performed well in Imperial examinations.

Hakka society was dependent on the working abilities of women, who had to take up a larger share of the farming work while the men were studying or at war. Because the women had to work, the Hakkas did not practice foot-binding.

Due to their agrarian lifestyle, the Hakka have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (See Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on preserved and fried and stewed items (See Hakka cuisine).

Hakkas in China

Meizhou Prefecture (in yellow) in Guangdong Province, where Xingning and Meixian are located

Hakkas in Guangdong

The Hakkas who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakkas came from this Guangdong region, usually from Huizhou: the Hakkas there live mostly in the eastern part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Guangxi contains the second-largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, the Hakkas in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋, wéilóngwū) and sijiaolou (Chinese: 四角樓, sìjǐaolóu).

Hakkas in Fujian

The Hakkas who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province, developed a unique form of architectural building known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are either round or square, and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor containing a well and livestock, the second food storage and the third and higher floors contain living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.

(see Hakka architecture)

Hakkas in Taiwan

In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong: they form the third largest population group on the island. Many Hakka moved to lands high up in the hills or remote mountains to escape political persecution. Many of the Hakka people continue to live in these hilly locations of Taiwan.

Taiwan's Hakka are concentrated in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Jhongli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong in Kaohsiung County, and in Pingtong County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei and Kaohsiung.

Hakkas in Hong Kong

The Hakkas in Hong Kong are concentrated in the villages and small towns in the New Territories. They farm high and difficult terrain because when they arrived in Hong Kong the Punti had already occupied the best land. The Hakka and the Punti are very different. For instance, the Hakka people actually speak a more standard Cantonese than the Punti, who talk with a thick accent. Also, the Hakka women never bound their feet, unlike the traditional Chinese.

Hakkas worldwide

The Hakkas have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand.

Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong, many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony. There once was a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most there have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, or Taiwan. Today there are about 90-100 million Hakka speakers around the world.

Hakkas in Indonesia

Hakka people in Indonesia are found primarily in cities in Western Kalimantan (Borneo), such as Pontianak, Singkawang, and towns along the Kapuas River. They are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century. (It is said that the first migrants wore Qing-style ponytails.) Hakka also are found on the Indonesian islands of Bangka and Belitung. However most have moved on to the city of Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia.

Hakkas on the island of Bangka have a very interesting accents scheme, said to be heavily influenced by the Malay native language. Because Chinese languages are dependent upon intonation, to convey meaning, slight difference in intonation can change the meaning entirely. The Hakka spoken by the islanders has such a different intonation that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakkas from other regions.

Hakkas in East Timor

Ethnic Hakka people in a wedding in East Timor, 2006

There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. During the invasion many Hakka were slaughtered, while others escaped to Australia. Now they can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne. They often are highly-educated, and many continue their educations in Taiwan or China. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, or grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time.

Prominent Hakkas

File:Aclarkson.jpg
Adrienne Clarkson, an ethnic Hakka, served as Canada's governor-general, the Queen's representative in country, from 1999 to 2005

The Hakka have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their small total numbers, on the course of Chinese and Overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary and political leaders.

Hakka were active in the Taiping Rebellion, led by the failed Qing scholar Hong Xiuquan who claimed he was the younger brother of Jesus, and they led a movement which formed the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (Taiping Tian Guo).

This continues to be true in modern Chinese history, in which some of the most prominent Chinese leaders have been Hakkas. In the 1980s-90s, the political leaders of all three Chinese-led countries were simultaneously Hakkas: the People's Republic of China's Deng Xiaoping, the Republic of China's Lee Teng-hui and Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew.

In addition, Deng Xiaoping and Lee Kuan Yew, both Hakkas, are two of the four Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine.

Revolutionaries and politicians

Government officials

  • Supachai Panitchpakdi, (1946-; born in Thailand), first and only Director-General of World Trade Organization of Asian origin
  • Yong Pung How (Dapu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), former Chief Justice, Singapore
  • Patrice Ah-Chip a.k.a Golo (Muiyuen, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), formerly Mayor of Triolet City, Mauritius An LSE graduate and is a well-known figure in Mauritius. He will be running for national parliament in the next election challenging the incumbent Prime Minister Dr Navin Ramgoolam in Constituency No 5 - Pamplemousses/Triolet. His close association to notorious mafia gangs does not seem to be an obstacle in his quest for a parliamentary seat.

Literary figures

  • Guo Moruo (1892-1978), famous Chinese literary figure
  • Han Suyin (1917-; Xinyang, Henan), famous author of books on modern China
  • Luo Xianglin (Xingning, Guangdong), the most renowned scholar on Hakka culture and language

Artists

  • Lin Fengmian (1900 - 1991; Meizhou, Guangdong), aka Lim Foong Min in Hakka - first to harmoniously combine Western and Chinese painting techniques.

Entrepreneurs

  • Yong Koon, founder of Royal Selangor, Malaysia, the largest pewter manufacturer in the world
  • Aw Boon Haw and Aw Boon Par (Yongding, Fujian; born in Burma), philanthropists of Tiger Balm fame
  • Cheong Fatt Tze (1840-1916; Dapu, Guangdong), well-respected business tycoon in South-east Asia who contributed greatly to the interests of Overseas Chinese during China's Qing and Republican era
  • Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah (born in Malaysia), founder and chairman of The Sunway Group of Companies, Malaysia
  • Alan Yau, founder of the Wagamama restaurant chain, Hakkasan, and Yauatcha.
  • Jimmy Choo, renowned designer of shoes and handbags.
  • Michael Lee-Chin, Jamaican-born Chairman and CEO of AIC Limited - one of Canada's largest mutual fund companies.
  • Edmund NS Tie (born in Singapore), Executive Chairman of DTZ(DebenhemTieLueng) Group of Companies, Singapore

Entertainers

  • Hong Kong
    • Leslie Cheung (1956-2003; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), late Hong Kong singer/actor
    • Chow Yun-Fat (1955-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong and Hollywood actor
    • Leon Lai (1966-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Beijing), one of the "Four Great Heavenly Kings" of Chinese pop music
    • Alex Man (Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong actor
    • Cherie Chung, Hong Kong actress
    • Jordan Chan (Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong actor
    • Eric Tsang (Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong actor-comedian
    • Francis Yip (Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong singer
    • Deanie Yip (Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Hong Kong singer/actress
  • Republic of China (Taiwan)
    • Hou Hsiao-Hsien (1947-; Meixian, Guangdong), award-winning Taiwanese film director
    • Lin Feng Qiao, famous Taiwanese actress in 70s-80s, wife of Jackie Chan
    • Luo Dayou, godfather of Taiwan pop music
    • Cyndi Wang, female Taiwanese singer
    • S.H.E, Taiwanese female pop group
      • Hebe Tien
      • Ella Chen
    • Shino Lin, Taiwanese singer
  • People's Republic of China
  • Singapore
  • Malaysia
  • United States

See also

Sources

  • The Hakka Dialect. A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon, by Mantaro J. Hashimoto. (Cambridge University Press, 1973).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Hakka_people&oldid=89023167"