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Viscose is a term often used to represent the viscose fiber that is made from natural sources such as wood and agricultural products that are regenerated as cellulose fiber. The molecular structure of natural cellulose is preserved in the process. The many types and grades of viscose fibers can imitate the feel and texture of natural fibers such as silk, wool, cotton, and linen. The types that resemble silk are often called artificial silk.

Rayon is manufactured from naturally occurring Cellulose hence, it is not considered to be synthetic. Technically, the term synthetic fiber is reserved for fully synthetic fibers made from synthetic polymers. In manufacturing terms, rayon is classified as "a fiber formed by regenerating natural materials into a usable form". Specific types of rayon include viscose, modal and lyocell, each of which differs in the manufacturing process and the properties of the finished product.

Viscose can mean:

A viscous solution of cellulose
A synonym of rayon
A specific term for viscose rayon—rayon made using the viscose (cellulose xanthate) process

The viscose fiber is made from dissolving wood pulp and regenerating it in the form of fibers. Pulp made from wood or bamboo is the most common raw material for making viscose. Viscose process dissolves cellulose pulp with aqueous sodium hydroxide in the presence of carbon disulfide. This viscous solution bears the name viscose. The cellulose solution is used to spin the viscose or the rayon fiber. Viscose rayon fiber is a soft fiber commonly used in dresses, linings, shirts, shorts, coats, jackets, and other outerwear. It is also used in industrial yarns, tyre cord, upholstery and carpets, to make disposable wipes, cleaning cloths and in the casting of cellophane.

Manufacture

Viscose rayon is a fiber of regenerated cellulose; it's molecular structure is that of cellulose in cotton and many other plants such as soy, bamboo, and sugar cane. Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-D-glucose units with the empirical formula (C₆H₁₀O₅)_$n$.^[2] To prepare viscose, dissolving pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16-19% w/w) to form "alkali cellulose," which has the approximate formula [C₆H₉O₄-ONa]_$n$. This is allowed to depolymerize to an extent. The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the ripening process since oxygen causes depolymerization. The alkali cellulose is then treated with carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose xanthate.^[3]

[C₆H₉O₄-ONa]_$n$ +

n

CS₂ → [C₆H₉O₄-OCS₂Na]_$n$

The higher the ratio of cellulose to combined sulfur, the lower the solubility of the cellulose xanthate. The xanthate is dissolved in aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 2-5% w/w). The solution’s viscosity is determined by the extent of depolymerization of the alkali cellulose.

Rayon fiber is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid. In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and release dithiocarbonic acid that later decomposes to carbon disulfide and water.

[C₆H₉O₄-OCS₂Na]_{2 $n$} +

n

H₂SO₄ → [C₆H₉O₄-OH]_{2 $n$} +2

n

CS₂ +

n

Na₂SO₄

H₂COS₂ → H₂O + CS₂

Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide (H²S), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution or hydrogen peroxide solution^[3]

Pollution

Though highly toxic carbon disulfide is used in the production of viscose, it is carefully recovered in the manufacturing process. Historically, however, several incidents have resulted in many poisonings. With production facilities often located in developing countries, concerns for worker safety continue.^[4] Newer control technologies have enabled improved collection of carbon disulfide and reuse of it, resulting in a reduction in carbon disulfide consumption as well as significantly reduced emissions of sulfur to air. In the last few years, more stringent processes based on European Standards have started to be implemented by leading viscose producers. These standards are based on application of latest technologies, collectively referred to as the closed loop viscose manufacturing process, which allows recovery and reuse of chemicals and other natural resources, reducing the exposure to workers as well as making the viscose process much safer.

Viscose or rayon may also be manufactured using the Lyocell process, which uses N-methylmorpholine N-oxide as the solvent and produces little waste product, making it even more eco-friendly.

History

French scientist and industrialist Hilaire de Chardonnet (1838–1924)—who invented the first artificial textile fiber, artificial silk—created viscose.^[5] British scientists Charles Frederick Cross and Edward John Bevan took out British patent no. 8,700, "Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds" in May, 1892.^[6] In 1893 they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences, and in 1896 formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd. to exploit the process.^[5]

Products made from viscose

References

^ Siegfried Hauptmann: Organische Chemie, 2. durchgesehene Auflage, VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1985, S. 652, ISBN 3-342-00280-8.
^ Booth, Gerald (2000). Dyes, General Survey. Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a09_073.
^ ^a ^b Wheeler, Edward (1928). The Manufacture of Artificial Silk With Special Reference to the Viscose Process. New York: D. Van Nostrand company.
^ Paul David Blanc (2016). Fake Silk The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon. Yale University Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780300204667.
^ ^a ^b Woodings, Calvin R. "A Brief History of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibres". WOODINGS CONSULTING LTD. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
^ Day, Lance; Ian McNeil (1998). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. Taylor & Francis. p. 113. ISBN 0-415-19399-0.

External links

"Viscose". Plastiquarian.com. Archived from the original on 2008-06-25.
What Is Viscose? from Barnhardt Natural Fibers

[Hauptmann-1] Siegfried Hauptmann: Organische Chemie, 2. durchgesehene Auflage, VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1985, S. 652, ISBN 3-342-00280-8.

[Ullmann's_Encyclopedia_of_Industrial_Chemistry-2] Booth, Gerald (2000). Dyes, General Survey. Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a09_073.

[Wheeler_1928-3] Wheeler, Edward (1928). The Manufacture of Artificial Silk With Special Reference to the Viscose Process. New York: D. Van Nostrand company.

[FakeSilk-4] Paul David Blanc (2016). Fake Silk The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon. Yale University Press. p. 325. ISBN 9780300204667.

[crw-bhrcf-5] Woodings, Calvin R. "A Brief History of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibres". WOODINGS CONSULTING LTD. Retrieved 26 May 2012.

[bdht-6] Day, Lance; Ian McNeil (1998). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. Taylor & Francis. p. 113. ISBN 0-415-19399-0.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Distinguish|viscous}}
+''Viscose'' is a term often used to represent the viscose fiber that is made from natural sources such as wood and agricultural products that are regenerated as [[cellulose fiber]]. The molecular structure of natural cellulose is preserved in the process. The many types and grades of viscose fibers can imitate the feel and texture of [[Natural fiber|natural fibers]] such as [[silk]], [[wool]], [[cotton]], and [[linen]]. The types that resemble silk are often called [[Art silk|artificial silk]].
-'''Viscose''' is a [[Semisynthesis|semi-synthetic]] fiber. "Viscose" can mean:
+Rayon is manufactured from naturally occurring Cellulose hence, it is not considered to be synthetic. Technically, the term [[synthetic fiber]] is reserved for [[Total synthesis|fully synthetic]] fibers made from synthetic polymers. In manufacturing terms, rayon is classified as "a fiber formed by regenerating natural materials into a usable form". Specific types of rayon include [[viscose]], [[Modal (textile)|modal]] and [[lyocell]], each of which differs in the manufacturing process and the properties of the finished product.
+Viscose can mean:
 * A viscous solution of cellulose
@@ Line 6: / Line 10: @@
 * A specific term for viscose rayon—rayon made using the viscose ([[cellulose xanthate]]) process
-The viscose process [[dissolving pulp|dissolves pulp]] with aqueous [[sodium hydroxide]] in the presence of [[carbon disulfide]]. This viscous solution bears the name ''viscose''. The cellulose solution is used to spin the viscose rayon fiber, which may also be called viscose. Viscose rayon fiber is a soft fiber commonly used in dresses, linings, shirts, shorts, coats, jackets, and other outerwear.  It is also used in industrial yarns (tyre cord), upholstery and carpets, to make disposable cleaning cloths and in the casting of [[cellophane]].
+The viscose fiber is made from dissolving wood pulp and regenerating it in the form of fibers.  Pulp made from wood or bamboo is the most common raw material for making viscose. Viscose process [[Dissolving pulp|dissolves cellulose pulp]] with aqueous [[sodium hydroxide]] in the presence of [[carbon disulfide]].  This viscous solution bears the name ''viscose''. The cellulose solution is used to spin the viscose or the rayon fiber. Viscose rayon fiber is a soft fiber commonly used in dresses, linings, shirts, shorts, coats, jackets, and other outerwear.  It is also used in industrial yarns, tyre cord, upholstery and carpets, to make disposable wipes, cleaning cloths and in the casting of [[cellophane]].
 == Manufacture ==
 [[File:Xanthogenate Cellulose Structural Formula V1.svg|300px|thumb|Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield viscose.]]
 [[File:Xanthogenate Cellulose Acid Hydrolysis V1.svg|300px|thumb|Rayon fiber is produced from the ripened viscose solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid.<ref name=Hauptmann>[[Siegfried Hauptmann]]: ''Organische Chemie'', 2. durchgesehene Auflage, VEB Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig, 1985, S.&nbsp;652, {{ISBN|3-342-00280-8}}.</ref>]]
-Viscose rayon is a fiber of regenerated cellulose; it is structurally similar to [[cotton]] but may be produced from a variety of plants such as soy, bamboo, and sugar cane. Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-D-glucose units with the empirical formula (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>)<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>.<ref name="Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry">{{cite book|last=Booth|first=Gerald|title=Dyes, General Survey|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH |doi=10.1002/14356007.a09_073}}</ref> To prepare viscose, dissolving pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16-19% [[w/w]]) to form "alkali cellulose," which has the approximate formula [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>-ONa]<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>. The alkali cellulose is then treated with [[carbon disulfide]] to form sodium cellulose [[xanthate]].<ref name="Wheeler 1928">{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Edward|title=The Manufacture of Artificial Silk With Special Reference to the Viscose Process|year=1928|publisher=D. Van Nostrand company|location=New York}}</ref>
+Viscose rayon is a fiber of regenerated cellulose; it's molecular structure is that of cellulose in [[cotton]] and many other plants such as soy, bamboo, and sugar cane. Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-D-glucose units with the empirical formula (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>)<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>.<ref name="Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry">{{cite book|last=Booth|first=Gerald|title=Dyes, General Survey|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH |doi=10.1002/14356007.a09_073}}</ref> To prepare viscose, dissolving pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16-19% [[w/w]]) to form "alkali cellulose," which has the approximate formula [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>-ONa]<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>. This is allowed to depolymerize to an extent.  The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the ripening process since oxygen causes depolymerization.  The alkali cellulose is then treated with [[carbon disulfide]] to form sodium cellulose [[xanthate]].<ref name="Wheeler 1928">{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Edward|title=The Manufacture of Artificial Silk With Special Reference to the Viscose Process|year=1928|publisher=D. Van Nostrand company|location=New York}}</ref>
 :[C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>-ONa]<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>  +  {{mvar|n}}[[Carbon disulfide|CS<sub>2</sub>]]   →   [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>-OCS<sub>2</sub>Na]<sub>{{mvar|n}}</sub>
-The higher the ratio of cellulose to combined sulfur, the lower the solubility of the cellulose xanthate.  The xanthate is dissolved in aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 2-5% w/w) and allowed to depolymerize to a desired extent, indicated by the solution's viscosity. The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic and organic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides.<ref name="Wheeler 1928" /> Air also affects the ripening process since oxygen causes depolymerization.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bartell|first=F. E.|author2=Cowling, Hale |title=Depolymermiation of Cellulose in Viscose Production|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|date=1 May 1942|volume=34|issue=5|pages=607–612|doi=10.1021/ie50389a017}}</ref>
+The higher the ratio of cellulose to combined sulfur, the lower the solubility of the cellulose xanthate.  The xanthate is dissolved in aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 2-5% w/w). The solution’s viscosity is determined by the extent of depolymerization of the alkali cellulose.
-Rayon fiber is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid.  In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and release dithiocarbonic acid that later decomposes to carbon disulfide and water:<ref name="Wyss 1043–1045">{{cite journal|last=Wyss|first=George de|title=The Ripening of Viscose.|journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|date=1 October 1925|volume=17|issue=10|pages=1043–1045|doi=10.1021/ie50190a018}}</ref>
+Rayon fiber is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid.  In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and release dithiocarbonic acid that later decomposes to carbon disulfide and water.
 :[C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>-OCS<sub>2</sub>Na]<sub>2{{mvar|n}}</sub> + {{mvar|n}}H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>   →   [C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>9</sub>O<sub>4</sub>-OH]<sub>2{{mvar|n}}</sub> +2{{mvar|n}}CS<sub>2</sub> + {{mvar|n}}Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>
@@ Line 23: / Line 27: @@
 :H<sub>2</sub>COS<sub>2</sub>   →   H<sub>2</sub>O  +  CS<sub>2</sub>
-Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with [[sodium hypochlorite]] solution.<ref name="Wheeler 1928" />
+Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide (H<sup>2</sup>S), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with [[sodium hypochlorite]] solution or hydrogen peroxide solution<ref name="Wheeler 1928" />
 === Pollution===
 {{see also|Rayon#Manufacturing health hazards}}
-Highly toxic [[carbon disulfide]] is used in the production of viscose. It is carefully recovered in the manufacturing process.  Historically, however, several incidents have resulted in many poisonings.  With production facilities often located in developing countries, concerns for worker safety continue.<ref name="FakeSilk">{{cite book|author=Paul David Blanc|title=
+Though highly toxic [[carbon disulfide]] is used in the production of viscose, it is carefully recovered in the manufacturing process.  Historically, however, several incidents have resulted in many poisonings.  With production facilities often located in developing countries, concerns for worker safety continue.<ref name="FakeSilk">{{cite book|author=Paul David Blanc|title=
+Fake Silk The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2016|pages=325|isbn=9780300204667}}</ref>  Newer control technologies have enabled improved collection of carbon disulfide and reuse of it, resulting in a reduction in carbon disulfide consumption as well as significantly reduced emissions of sulfur to air. In the last few years, more stringent processes based on European Standards have started to be implemented by leading viscose producers. These standards are based on application of latest technologies, collectively referred to as the closed loop viscose manufacturing process, which allows recovery and reuse of chemicals and other natural resources, reducing the exposure to workers as well as making the viscose process much safer.
-Fake Silk The Lethal History of Viscose Rayon|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2016|pages=325|isbn=9780300204667}}</ref>
+Viscose or rayon may also be manufactured using the [[Lyocell]] process, which uses [[N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide|N-methylmorpholine N-oxide]] as the solvent and produces little waste product, making it even  more eco-friendly.
+----<br />
 == History ==
 {{See also|Rayon#Viscose method}}
 French scientist and industrialist [[Hilaire de Chardonnet]] (1838–1924)—who invented the first artificial textile fiber, ''artificial silk''—created viscose.<ref name="crw-bhrcf" /> British scientists [[Charles Frederick Cross]] and [[Edward John Bevan]] took out British patent no. 8,700, "Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds" in May, 1892.<ref name=bdht>{{cite book|last=Day|first=Lance|title=Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology|year=1998|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=0-415-19399-0|pages=113|author2=Ian McNeil }}</ref> In 1893 they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences, and in 1896 formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd. to exploit the process.<ref name=crw-bhrcf>{{cite web|last=Woodings|first=Calvin R.|title=A Brief History of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibres|url=http://www.nonwoven.co.uk/reports/History%20of%20Cellulosics.html|publisher=WOODINGS CONSULTING LTD.|accessdate=26 May 2012}}</ref>
+<br />
-The use of viscose is declining. Instead, rayon may be manufactured using the [[Lyocell]] process, which uses [[N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide|N-methylmorpholine N-oxide]] as the solvent and produces little waste product, making it relatively eco-friendly.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dawson|first=Tim|year=2011|title=Progress towards a greener textile industry|doi=10.1111/j.1478-4408.2011.00346.x|journal=Coloration Technology|volume=128|pages=1–8}}</ref>
 == Products made from viscose ==
 * [[Art silk]]