Larinioides sclopetarius: Difference between revisions
Habitat, Territoriality, Diet, Webs, Reproduction and Life cycle, Mating, Social Behavior, Physiology, Enemies, Interactions with Humans, and Plasticity sections added Tags: nowiki added Visual edit |
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=== Web Construction === |
=== Web Construction === |
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The mean mesh height, the distance between different capture threads, is approximately 2 mm.<ref name=":8" /> Yasuaki Murakami, a researcher from Kyushu University, found an interesting pattern where an increase in mesh height correlated with an increase in prey size.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murakami|first=Yasuaki|date=1983-03-01|title=Factors determining the prey size of the orb-web spider, Argiope amoena (L. Koch) (Argiopidae)|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00379564|journal=Oecologia|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=72–77|doi=10.1007/BF00379564|issn=1432-1939}}</ref> However, unlike many other spiders, including ''Micrathena gracilis'' and ''Argiope aurantia'', ''L. sclopetarius'' does not follow the trend of greater mesh height equating to capturing larger prey. One explanation may be the lack of prey diversity. Regardless of mesh height, ''L. sclopetarius'' primarily targets smaller dipterans. |
The mean mesh height, the distance between different capture threads, is approximately 2 mm.<ref name=":8" /> Yasuaki Murakami, a researcher from Kyushu University, found an interesting pattern where an increase in mesh height correlated with an increase in prey size.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Murakami|first=Yasuaki|date=1983-03-01|title=Factors determining the prey size of the orb-web spider, Argiope amoena (L. Koch) (Argiopidae)|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00379564|journal=Oecologia|language=en|volume=57|issue=1|pages=72–77|doi=10.1007/BF00379564|issn=1432-1939}}</ref> However, unlike many other spiders, including ''Micrathena gracilis'' and ''Argiope aurantia'', ''L. sclopetarius'' does not follow the trend of greater mesh height equating to capturing larger prey. One explanation may be the lack of prey diversity. Regardless of mesh height, ''L. sclopetarius'' primarily targets smaller dipterans. |
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[[File:Larinioides sclopetarius (Araneidae sp.) female, Arnhem, the Netherlands - 2.jpg|thumb|''Lariniodes sclopetarius'' in the Netherlands<ref>"File:Larinioides sclopetarius (Araneidae sp.) female, Arnhem, the Netherlands - 2.jpg" by Bj.schoenmakers is marked under CC0 1.0. To view the terms, visit <nowiki>http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en</nowiki></ref>]] |
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== Reproduction and Life cycle == |
== Reproduction and Life cycle == |
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Revision as of 18:41, 18 November 2020
| Larinioides sclopetarius | |
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Subphylum: | Chelicerata |
| Class: | Arachnida |
| Order: | Araneae |
| Infraorder: | Araneomorphae |
| Family: | Araneidae |
| Genus: | Larinioides |
| Species: | L. sclopetarius
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| Binomial name | |
| Larinioides sclopetarius | |
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| Synonyms | |
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Araneus sclopetarius | |
Larinioides sclopetarius, commonly called bridge spider or gray cross spider, is a relatively large orb-weaver spider with holarctic distribution. These spiders are located in Europe and have been observed as south as the Mediterranean Coast and as North as Finland. They are often found on bridges, especially near light and over water.[1] The species tends to live on steel objects and is seldom seen on vegetation.[2] Females reach body length of 10–14mm, males 8–9mm.[1] Their orb webs can have diameters of up to 70 cm.
L. sclopetarius is attracted to lights. Spiders found near light sources may be in better condition and have greater reproductive success than spiders living in unlit areas.[3] Most of these lighted areas are found in cities or other metropolitan areas. As a result, many urban areas have become saturated with these spiders. As many as 100 of these spiders can be found in a square meter in optimal feeding locations.[4]
They often hide during the day, and wait for prey in the center of their web at night. In high-density populations, spiders may remain sedentary to protect their territories. Mature females and juvenile spiders will often build webs. However, adult males generally inhabit adult female webs. Males can be found mostly during summer, females are active until November in Central Europe.
Description
L. sclopetarius creates circular webs that contrast the elliptical orb webs that many other orb-web spider form .[5] Additionally, their orb-webs change shape the spider ages. As the spider matures, the adhesive web's lower-section will continue to increase whereas the web's upper section will become proportionally smaller.[6] This discrepancy in web-size becomes more prominent as the spider gets larger.
They exhibit a slight sexual dimorphism where females are heavier than males. Females typically weigh around 60 mg, whereas males weigh around 38 mg.[7] However, males may be slightly larger than females. Females can range from 4.5- 6.25 mm in length. Males vary from 4.25 mm to 7 mm in length.[7]
L. sclopetarius differs from its close relatives, L. patagiatus and L. cornutus, with a few defining characteristics. Unlike the latter two species, L. sclopetarius has white hairs that provide a silhouette for their heads and dark markings on its abdomen.[8]
Habitat and Distribution
L. sclopetarius is a spider found in Central Europe often found near water.[9] They are most commonly found near artificial sources of light near the water such as bridges and boats. They often aggregate in high densities near the lights. The lights attract more insects increasing these spiders’ prey capture.[10] Their light-seeking behaviors may have some genetic basis.
In these feeding locations, adult females tend to occupy the best foraging areas. Juveniles and immature spiders are relegated to worse feeding areas when the competition is high.[11] These behaviors may be observed due to juveniles being unable to compete for better territories. However, when these spiders mature, they often search for more illuminated areas to create their webs and lay their eggs.
Territoriality
L. sclopetarius is not a social spider.[12] However, they often build webs next to each other.[4] Females exhibit territorial defense of their webs from intruders, including other members of the same species. In high population densities, females exhibit more aggressive behavior to conspecifics due to shortages of territories.[12]
Diet
These spiders are primarily nocturnal foragers. Their prey capture fluctuates with the seasons. It is highest in the summer months, declining in the spring and fall. Chironomids consist of a significant portion of their diet.[10] These small flies may comprise up to 94% of the spiders’ diets.[13] Their prey's average size ranges from 1.2-6.8 mm.
Webs
Spiders in high-prey areas have created webs with larger capture areas.[6] These trends differ from other spiders such as A. keyserlingi where satiated spiders created smaller webs.
L. sclopetarius creates webs near sources of light. The part of the web adjacent to the light captures more prey than parts of the web farther away from the light .[14]
When resting in webs, these spiders tend to orient their posteriors in the direction of the wind. When the direction of the wind changes, the spider attempts to position itself back towards it. This behavior may have evolved to reduce the spider's risk of being blown off the web’s hub. Adhering to webs may be a challenge for L. sclopetarius in urban environments due to the lack of areas that can accommodate stable web sites under windy conditions.[14]
Web Type
Adults create asymmetrical webs. The outer frame threads are generally similar in structure. The hubs, which are centers of the web, are also comparable to each other. The difference lies in the radii of the capture threads.[6] The lower region radii of the capture threads are larger than the upper regions of the web. The web's unequal sizes may be due to the spider’s easier accessibility to the captured prey in the lower regions of the web.[6] This capture web asymmetry increases with spider weight and gets more pronounced as the spiders age. Unlike adults, juveniles create symmetrical webs.
Web Construction
The mean mesh height, the distance between different capture threads, is approximately 2 mm.[13] Yasuaki Murakami, a researcher from Kyushu University, found an interesting pattern where an increase in mesh height correlated with an increase in prey size.[15] However, unlike many other spiders, including Micrathena gracilis and Argiope aurantia, L. sclopetarius does not follow the trend of greater mesh height equating to capturing larger prey. One explanation may be the lack of prey diversity. Regardless of mesh height, L. sclopetarius primarily targets smaller dipterans.
_female,_Arnhem,_the_Netherlands_-_2.jpg)
Reproduction and Life cycle
Males typically grow faster than females and mature into adults up to a month earlier.[7]
L. sclopetarius has a life span of approximately 1.5 years in optimal conditions. They have an above average reproductive ability producing up to 15 egg sacs.[17]
Unlike many spiders, development is independent from seasons. Adult spiders may become mature at any point during the year, however the greatest concentration of mature spiders occurs in late Summer.[17]
Mating
L. sclopetarius exhibits many aggressive behaviors such as chasing and attacking conspecifics. If individuals are in the same web, they may engage in web-shaking contests. These aggressive behaviors may be genetically inherited. Assortative mating may be at play as aggressive males and females are more likely to mate with each other. Additionally, non-aggressive individuals are more likely to mate with each other.[18] There may be some male selection preferences as aggressive males may want to create the most aggressive males by mating with aggressive females for some practical benefits. Aggression may be selected as it may be needed to secure the best sites for web building around a light source. In some instances, groups of aggressive spiders may have lower mortality rates than mixed groups with non-aggressive and aggressive spiders.[18]
Aggressive males tend to create more fit males. Female reproductive success was partially dependent on female size rather than aggressiveness.[18]
Sexual Cannibalism
Females may eat males when resources are scarce. Females that consume insects generally absorb more lipids, which provide a more efficient energy source. Sexual cannibalism does not seem to affect spider egg sac mass and clutch size because protein and lipid diets had elicited similar results.[9] However, when food sources are scarce, spiderlings from females consuming high lipid diets may have better survival rates than spiderlings from females consuming high protein diets. Males may be seen as last-resort prey where there are no better options.
Spiderlings from mothers who consumed male L. sclopetarius were observed spinning their webs sooner than mothers that solely ate insects.[9] This observed behavior may either be due to the male providing necessary proteins for silk production or an environmental stressor that encouraged web building to compete in resource-scarce settings.
Social Behavior
Female spiders live independently, defending their own webs. However, male spiders may have a kleptoparasitic relationship with the female choosing to live on a female’s web and steal their prey.[12]
L. sclopetarius exhibits high levels of activities in unfamiliar environments, which may have contributed to their widespread colonization of urban areas.[4] In experimental conditions, they tend to move and explore new settings more than their other urban counterparts Zygiella x-notata.
Males are generally more aggressive than females (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-017-2353-x).[4]
L. sclopetarius typically positions itself on the lower areas of the web. This can be seen as a defensive behavior as it allows the spider to easily escape from the web from predators by using a safety line.[14]
Physiology
Locomotion
L. sclopetarius for areas using a ballooning technique where the spider releases threads into the wind to travel. This method allows the spider to travel to preferable feeding areas.[11]
Glands and Toxins
L. sclopetarius secretes anti-adhesive compounds that prevent its legs from sticking to their capture threads.[19] The mechanism for how the spiders develop and secrete this protection is currently unknown.
Sexual Dimorphism
This spider follows Rensch’s rule. Rensch’s rule states that male size is more variable than female size. There is only a small sexual dimorphism between males and females. Females grow slower and have more instars than males. As a result, they become heavier than males. Males grow faster and weigh approximately 40% of females. They also have longer legs and are larger than female spiders.[7] These longer leg lengths may be due to mating advantages due to female choice or male competition.
Diet may be related to male spider size. Poorer diets are associated with male spiders that possess shorter legs. Female spider size was unaffected by the quality of the diet.[7] Female size may be undergoing stabilizing selection, which can explain the lack of variance in size despite diet changes.
Protandry
Male spiders exhibit protandry.[7] The benefits for this behavior are unknown; the number of females able to breed throughout the year is relatively constant. Other factors that encourage protandry such as mate guarding and and time of mating were not seen in L. sclopetarius.
Enemies
Phalacrotophora epeirae is one predator that consumes L. sclopetarius eggs.[20]
Trypoxylon attenuatum is a species of spider hunting wasp exhibited to hunt L. sclopetarius.[21] These wasps are normally found in Southern Europe and prey on both foraging and sedentary spiders. T. attenuatum will paralyze spiders and bring them back to their nests. Once at the nest, L. sclopetarius may have an egg laid in it and serve as a food source for the wasp’s larvae.
Interactions with Humans
L. sclopetarius has been found in urban environments aggregating around sources of light. [12] In Finland, they have been found in boats and boathouses.[8] These spiders can migrate via boats which have caused them to be found in isolated islands such as the Aland Islands and spread over much of coastal Europe. They pose a hazard to local businesses as restaurant boats may experience a decline in productivity due to their web's frequent presence driving away customers.
Plasticity
L. sclopetarius shows high plasticity levels based on resource availability.[17] These spiders exhibit variability in growth and weight gain between moulting periods. Their intermoult periods have a broader range of values than other spiders that inhabit urban environments such as Zygiella x‐notata.
Additionally, L. sclopetarius can alter its growth rate without increasing their risks of mortality.[17] In resource-abundant areas, spiders have exhibited accelerated maturation. Their fast growth rates may allow them to colonize areas that can accommodate them.
References
- ^ a b Roberts, Michael J. (1996) Collins Field Guide: Spiders of Britain and Northern Europe, Collins, ISBN 978-0-00-219981-0, pp. 321–2
- ^ Nieuwenhuys, Ed (17 November 2013). "Orb web spiders or orb-weavers". Retrieved 3 September 2014.
- ^ Gomes, Dylan G.E. (2020-03-17). "Orb-weaving spiders are fewer but larger and catch more prey in lit bridge panels from a natural artificial light experiment". PeerJ. 8. doi:10.7717/peerj.8808. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 7083158. PMID 32211243.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b c d Kralj-Fišer, Simona; Hebets, Eileen A.; Kuntner, Matjaž (2017-07-25). "Different patterns of behavioral variation across and within species of spiders with differing degrees of urbanization". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 71 (8): 125. doi:10.1007/s00265-017-2353-x. ISSN 1432-0762.
- ^ Venner, S.; Thevenard, L.; Pasquet, A.; Leborgne, R. (2001-05-01). "Estimation of the Web's Capture Thread Length in Orb-Weaving Spiders: Determining the Most Efficient Formula". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 94 (3): 490–496. doi:10.1603/0013-8746(2001)094[0490:eotwsc]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0013-8746.
- ^ a b c d Herberstein, M.E.; Heiling, A.M. (1999-12). "Asymmetry in spider orb webs: a result of physical constraints?". Animal Behaviour. 58 (6): 1241–1246. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1255. ISSN 0003-3472.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c d e f Kleinteich, Anja (2014). "Evidence for Rensch's rule in an orb-web spider with moderate sexual size dimorphism". Evolutionary Ecology Research. 12: 667–683.
- ^ a b Fritzen, Niclas (2005). "Larinioides sclopetarius and Agalenatea redii (Araneae: Araneidae) - Two spider species new to Finland". Memoranda - Societatis Pro Fauna Et Flora Fennica. 81: 108–110 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ a b c Deventer, S. A.; Herberstein, M. E.; Mayntz, D.; O'Hanlon, J. C.; Schneider, J. M. (2017). "Female fecundity and offspring survival are not increased through sexual cannibalism in the spider Larinioides sclopetarius". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 30 (12): 2146–2155. doi:10.1111/jeb.13178. ISSN 1420-9101.
- ^ a b Heiling, Astrid M. (1999-06-09). "Why do nocturnal orb-web spiders (Araneidae) search for light?". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 46 (1): 43–49. doi:10.1007/s002650050590. ISSN 0340-5443.
- ^ a b "THE IMPORTANCE OF BEING LARGER: INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION FOR PRIME WEB SITES IN ORB-WEB SPIDERS (ARANEAE, ARANEIDAE)". Behaviour. 136 (5): 669–677. 1999. doi:10.1163/156853999501513. ISSN 0005-7959.
- ^ a b c d Heiling, Astrid; Herberstein, Marie (1997). Activity patterns in different developmental stages and sexes of Larinioides sclopetarius (Clerck) (Araneae, Araneidae) (PDF). British Arachnological Society. pp. 211–214. ISBN 0-9500093-2-6.
{{cite book}}: line feed character in|title=at position 77 (help) - ^ a b Herberstein, Marie; Heiling, Astrid (1998). "Does mesh height influence prey length in orb-web spiders (Araneae)?" (PDF). European Journal of Entomology. 95: 367–371.
- ^ a b c Herberstein, M. E.; Heiling, A. M. (2001-10). "Positioning at the hub: does it matter on which side of the web orb-web spiders sit?". Journal of Zoology. 255 (2): 157–163. doi:10.1017/s0952836901001224. ISSN 0952-8369.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Murakami, Yasuaki (1983-03-01). "Factors determining the prey size of the orb-web spider, Argiope amoena (L. Koch) (Argiopidae)". Oecologia. 57 (1): 72–77. doi:10.1007/BF00379564. ISSN 1432-1939.
- ^ "File:Larinioides sclopetarius (Araneidae sp.) female, Arnhem, the Netherlands - 2.jpg" by Bj.schoenmakers is marked under CC0 1.0. To view the terms, visit http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en
- ^ a b c d Kleinteich, Anja; Schneider, Jutta M. (2011-02). "Developmental strategies in an invasive spider: constraints and plasticity". Ecological Entomology. 36 (1): 82–93. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.2010.01249.x.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Kralj-Fiser, S.; Sanguino Mostajo, G. A.; Preik, O.; Pekar, S.; Schneider, J. M. (2013-04-18). "Assortative mating by aggressiveness type in orb weaving spiders". Behavioral Ecology. 24 (4): 824–831. doi:10.1093/beheco/art030. ISSN 1045-2249.
- ^ Kropf, Christian; Bauer, Dina; Schläppi, Thomas; Jacob, Alain (2012-02). "An organic coating keeps orb-weaving spiders (Araneae, Araneoidea, Araneidae) from sticking to their own capture threads: An organic coating protects orb web spiders". Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 50 (1): 14–18. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0469.2011.00648.x.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ GUARISCO, HANK (2001-08). "DESCRIPTION OF THE EGG SAC OF MIMETUS NOTIUS (ARANEAE, MIMETIDAE) AND A CASE OF EGG PREDATION BY PHALACROTOPHORA EPEIRAE (DIPTERA, PHORIDAE)". Journal of Arachnology. 29 (2): 267–269. doi:10.1636/0161-8202(2001)029[0267:doteso]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0161-8202.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Asis, Josep Daniel; Tormos, Jose; Gayubo, Severiano Fernandez (1996-05-01). "Behavior of Philanthus pulchellus (Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) with a Description of Its Mature Larva". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 89 (3): 452–458. doi:10.1093/aesa/89.3.452. ISSN 1938-2901.
External links
Media related to Larinioides sclopetarius at Wikimedia Commons- Picture of a L. sclopetarius
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