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The history of the Jews in Hamburg in Germany, is recorded from at least 1590 on. The Jews of Hamburg have lived primarily in the Jewish neighbourhoods of Grindel [de] and New Town, where the Sephardic Community„"Newe Shalom" (Template:Lang-he)^[1] was established in 1652. Since 1612 there have been toleration agreements with the senate of the prevailingly Lutheran city. Also Reformed Dutch merchants and Anglican Britons made similar agreements before. In these agreements the Jews were not permitted to live in the Inner-City, though were also not required to live in ghettos.

From 1600 onwards, also German Jews settled in Hamburg, but in 1649 these Ashkenazi Jews were driven out of the city. From then on, only Sephardi Jews were permitted to live in Hamburg. Ashkenazi Jews returned to Hamburg in 1656.^[2]

Around 1925, about 20,000 Jews lived in Hamburg. When the Nazis came to power, most synagogues were destroyed and soon the associated communities also were dissolved. In 1945, a Jewish community was founded by survivors of the Shoah. And finally in 1960 the new Synagogue "Hohe Weide" was built.

Origins

The Jewish Community in Hamburg, began with the establishment of Sephardic Jewish from Spain and Antwerp. They came around 1577, as they were expelled from Spain. Before the destruction of the Jewish community by the Nazis, Eimsbüttel was the center of Jewish life in Hamburg. There were several synagogues, the most famous were the "Neue Dammtor-Synagoge" (1895), the "Bornplatzsynagoge" (1906) and the Temple on Oberstrasse (1931).

Sephardic Jews

Notable Sephardi Jews in Hamburg include Duarte Nunes da Costa (alias Jacob Curiel) (1587-1665), Agent of the Spanish and later, Agent of the Portuguese Crown in Hamburg, and ennobled by Joao IV of Portugal on 14 June 1641. Son of the eminent physician Abraham Curiel.

Ashkenazim

Jewish community in Altona

Different regulations applied to Sephardim and Ashkenazim in Altona which – unlike its easterly adjacent imperially free city-state and republic of Hamburg – formed part of a monarchy, the county of Holstein-Pinneberg.

In 1584 Count Adolphus XI of Holstein-Pinneberg and Schauenburg [de] granted individual staying permits (Partikulargeleit, i.e. particular escort) for Altona and the neigbouring village of Ottensen to four families who are the first Ashkenazi Schutzjuden recorded for Altona.^[3] In Hamburg the Senate granted no such permissions to Ashkenazim, nevertheless, by 1610 some Ashkenazim had managed to factually live in Hamburg, however, not in households of their own, but in those of their employers, usually established Sephardim of Hamburg. However, as a member of someone else's household founding an own family was forbidden and one's stay depended on the employment. In 1611 two other families were permitted to settle in Altona, with their writs of permission mentioning four Ashkenazi families already living there.^[4]

In 1612 Altona's Ashkenazim managed to negotiate with the comital government staying permissions for them as a community (Generalgeleit, i.e. general escort, a general privilege), not as individuals, and thus the community arranged the reception of more Ashkenazim increasing their number to 30 families in 1622.^[4] The Ashkenazim established under the general privilege a fully fledged qehillah, the Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde zu Altona (i.e. High German Israelite community/congregation at Altona^[5]), with elected council, agreeing religious taxes to finance teaching, miqve, cemetery and synagogue.^[6]

In the adjacent Lutheran city-state of Hamburg Sephardim enjoyed a certain protection within the framework of her contracts with communities of foreign merchants' of non-Lutheran faith such as Calvinist Reformed Dutchmen, Anglican Englishmen, or Catholic French with the city-state's government, the Senate of Hamburg.^[7] In this context Hamburg had received the Sephardim in 1590 as the natio lusitana (Catholic Portuguese), with both parties tacitly overlooking their Jewishness in the beginning. So as their residence, only few Sephardim chose Altona.

The senate and other republican bodies (Hamburg's aldermen, Lutheran elders [Oberalte], commercial deputation etc.), ruled the city-state in a system of checks and balances. In 1603 some aldermen complained to the senate that the Portuguese were actually Sephardim, with the senate ignoring that, and after a repeated complaint in 1604 the senate pretended in its response, it had no indication for that assumption.^[8] However, with the ongoing anti-Judaic debate in the republic's legislative and ruling bodies, the senate denied Hamburg's Sephardim to buy land for a cemetery within the city-state territory.

So in 1611 Hamburg's Sephardim acquired land from Count Ernest for their cemetery just 1,300 metres beyond Hamburg's state border on Altona's today's Königstraße, which was used until 1871 when it ran out of space. In 1612 Count Ernest sold an adjacent plot to Altona's Ashkenazim for their cemetery. After the senate had obtained the expert opinion of Viadrina's faculty of Lutheran theology on 29 August 1611 that tolerating Portuguese Jews was "paternal and Christian" as is the continuation of this practice,^[9] the senate rejected the criticism by aldermen. On 19 February 1612 the senate concluded the Designatio Articulorum, darauf sich E. E. Rath mit der portugiesischen Nation verglichen und dieselben in Schutz und Schirm genommen with the Sephardim as a recognised and protected corporation of persons.^[10] However, of the Ashkenazim indeed living in Hamburg, where they only received legal recognition in 1710, many tried to secure legal protection of the Danish crown in case of any attempt to expel them from Hamburg.

So besides the legally recognised Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde zu Altona there lived many Ashkenaszim in Altona who made no use of its premises and services because they were members of Hamburg's Ashkenazi congregation. As Hamburg's Sephardim called the city's Ashkenazim in Portuguese as Tudescos (Germans), the latter styled their congregation as Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg (lit. German Israelite Community at Hamburg; est. 1661/1662). In Altona the conditions of residence were favorable, in Hamburg the conditions for business. These were the reasons for the genesis of a branch community of Hamburg's Ashkenazi congregation in Altona.^[11] A similar development took place in Hamburg's eastern neighbour, the Danish-Holsteinian city of Wandsbek where Ashkenazim from Hamburg used to live, or at least used to be legal residents there, whereas their religious affiliation was with the Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg. In the 17th and early 18th century the Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg had more members officially residing and occasionally factually living in Altona or Wandsbek than in Hamburg proper.

Thanks to immigration from the central eastern Europe, Altona's Ashkenzi congregation became a center of research and scholarship in Jewish teaching (e.g. Jonathan Eybeschütz, Jacob Emden), attracting hundreds of students. The officially recognised Beth Din had a reputation as one of the most distinguished in the whole Jewish world.^[12] No wonder that the three Ashkenazi congregations, anyway intertwined by members of Hamburg's Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde spending their working hours and many a night intown, although officially residing and occasionally actually living in Altona and Wandsbek, established a close coöperation in 1671. Their overwhelming umbrella was styled Dreigemeinde AH"U (Template:Lang-he; i.e. tri-community AH"U, derived from the Hebrew acronym of the initials of Altona, Hamburg, Wandsbek) led by Altona's Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde, the most renowned and legally best protected of the three. However, the tri-community was no merger, then legally impossible across state borders.

A general privilege expired with the rulers' deaths and thus Adolphus' successors Ernest, Jobst Herman and Otto V [de] all confirmed it. Following the county's integration in 1640 into the German Duchy of Holstein-Glückstadt, ruled in personal union by the kings of Denmark–Norway, on 1 August 1641 King Christian IV had formally reconfirmed the Ashkenazim their general privilege including their cemetery and a synagogue,^[13] thus continuing the basis for the existence of the their community.^[14] By the end of the 17th century the Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde established the Altona Eruv [de], maintained until the 1930s, when on 1 January 1938 Altona's Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde merged with the Ashkenazi congregations of Hamburg (Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg), of Harburg-Wilhelmsburg (Synagogengemeinde Harburg) and of Wandsbek (Israelitische Gemeinde zu Wandsbek), following the incorporation of the smaller cities into the by far larger Hamburg by way of the Greater Hamburg Act of 1937.

In 1697 the freedom of religious practice which Hamburg's Sephardic congregation had obtained was disturbed by hostile edicts of the aldermen, and Jews were extortionately taxed (Cf. Taxes on the Jews in Altona and Hamburg). On this account many of the rich and important Sephardim left Hamburg, some of them laying the foundation of the Portuguese congregation of Altona. The number of Sephardim in Altona only then reached the critical number to form congregations, first known as Beit Yacob ha-Katan (Template:Lang-he). In 1770 they founded the Holy Community of Neveh Shalom (Template:Lang-he), making Altona – within the area which later became Germany – one of the few places where Sephardic communities ever established, besides Emden, Glückstadt, Hamburg, Stade and Wandsbek. Altona's Sephardim, like all Jews of Danish-ruled Holstein, gained legal equality on 14 July 1863 through an act of the Danish-Holsteinian government. In 1887, Altona had become part of Prussia in 1867, the few remaining Sephardic congregants had to dissolve their community due to lack of members.

After in 1811 the First French Empire had annexed Hamburg, already suffering three French occupations since 1806, French centralist authorities forbade any coöperation beyond France's borders thus terminating the tri-community. Under French rule the Jews in Hamburg were emancipated, residence restrictions were dropped, and so many previously commuting Hamburg Jews took permanent residence in town.

Haskalah / Jewish emancipation

Approximately 6,500 Jews lived in Hamburg in 1800. Thus, they represented a share of six percent of the city's total population. This was the largest Jewish community in Germany. Since in 1812 the French annexation administration ordered the dissolution of the 1671-founded cross-border joint Ashkenazi community Altona-Hamburg-Wandsbek (Template:Lang-he; Dreigemeinde AHU), combining the three Ashkenazi congregations of Altona (est. 1622) and Wandsbek, both in Holstein.^[15] The AHU congregation ceased to exist in 1811 when the French authorities imposed a single consistorial organization; the Ashkenazim and Sephardim united to form one congregation, the Altona community retaining its own rabbinate which was also recognized by the Jews of Wandsbek until 1864.^[16]

The decisive assistance in the fight for equal rights came because in the elections 1848 the Jews had voting rights. To get those votes, two opposing groups promised them equal rights. Then, in February 1849, they received all citizens rights which was the start for integration. On 1 February 1865 a new law abolished the compulsion for Jews to enroll with one of Hamburg's two statutory Jewish congregations (the Ashkenazi DIG; or the Sephardic Holy Congregation of the Sephardim Beit Israel [[[:Template:Lang-de]] / Template:Lang-he]; est. 1652).^[17]

So the members of the Reform-aligned New Israelite Temple Society were free to found their own Jewish congregation.^[18] The fact that its members were no longer compelled to associate with the Ashkenazi DIG meant that it could possibly fall apart.^[18] In order to prevent this and to reconstitute the DIG as a religious body with voluntary membership in a liberal civic state the DIG held general elections among its full-aged male members, to form a college of 15 representatives (Repräsentanten-Kollegium), who would further negotiate the future constitution of the DIG.^[18] The liberal faction gained nine, the Orthodox faction 6 seats.^[18] After lengthy negotiations the representatives enacted the statutes of the DIG on 3 November 1867.^[18]

The new DIG constitution provided for tolerance among the DIG members as to matters of the cult (worship) and religious tradition.^[18] This unique model, thus called Hamburg System (Hamburger System), established a two-tiered organisation of the DIG with the college of representatives and the umbrella administration in charge of matters of general Ashkenazi interest, such as cemetery, zedakah for the poor, hospital and representation of the Ashkenazim towards the outside.^[18] The second tier formed the so-called Kultusverbände (worship associations), associations independent in religious and financial matters by their own elected boards and membership dues, but within the DIG, took care of religious affairs.^[18]

Each member of the DIG, but also any non-associated Jew, was entitled to also join a worship association, but did not have to.^[18] So since 1868 the Reform movement formed within the DIG a Kultusverband, the Reform Jewish Israelitischer Tempelverband (Israelite Temple association).^[18] The other worship associations were the Orthodox Deutsch-Israelitischer Synagogenverband (German-Israelite Synagogue association, est. 1868) and the 1892-founded but only 1923-recognised conservative Verein der Neuen Dammtor-Synagoge (Association of the new Dammtor synagogue).^[19] The worship associations had agreed that all services commonly provided such as burials, britot mila, zedakah for the poor, almshouses, hospital care and food offered in these institutions had to fulfill Orthodox requirements.^[18]

On 1 January 1938, after the incorporation of neighbouring cities into Hamburg in 1937, the smaller Ashkenazi congregations of Altona (Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde zu Altona; HIG), Harburg-Wilhelmsburg (Synagogen-Gemeinde Harburg-Wilhelmsburg) and Wandsbek (Israelitische Gemeinde zu Wandsbek) merged in the DIG, on this occasion the Nazi Reich Ministry of ecclesiastical affairs forced the greater DIG to adopt a new name.^[20] The Nazi administrators took pleasure in humiliating the congregation by denying its continued use of the name Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde, arguing the term Deutsch (i.e. German) would be impossible for Jewish organisations, the Nazi government generally denied Jewish Germans their Germanness, Israelitisch (i.e. Israelite) were too ambiguous, the clearly anti-Semitic doctrine demanded the term Jüdisch (i.e. Jewish) and in December 1937 the Reich Ministry of the Interior objected the term Gemeinde which would be inapt, because the term also stands for a commune or municipality in German law (Gemeinde, however, means as much congregation, but there was no way to argue with the ministry),^[21] so the greater DIG renamed as Jüdischer Religionsverband Hamburg (JRH; i.e. Hamburg Jewish religious association).^[22]

In March 1938 the JRH was deprived its status as statutory corporation (Körperschaft des öffentlichen Rechts; entailing loss of tax privileges), followed by the abolition of its constitutional bodies on 2 December the same year, such as the legislative college of representatives (Repräsentanten-Kollegium), subjecting the JRH executive board directly to Gestapo orders.^[20] In 1939 the tiny Sephardic congregation was forced to merge in the JRH, which again had to also enlist non-Jews of Jewish descent categorised by the Nazis as racially Jewish, such as irreligionists or Christians with three or more Jewish grandparents. Thus having lost its character as a merely religious congregation, but turned into an administration of those Hamburgers persecuted by Nazi anti-Semitism. On 1 August 1942 the tasks of the JRH were handed over to the new Reichsvereinigung (RV), on 21 November the JRH was formally merged in the RV.^[23]

Holocaust

Roughly 7,800 Jews from Hamburg were killed under the Nazis.^[24] The Neuengamme concentration camp was established in 1938 by the SS near the village of Neuengamme in the Bergedorf district of Hamburg.

Many Hamburg Jews are commemorated by Stolperstein.

Jewish Community since 1945

On 8 July 1945 12 Jews met in Hamburg in preparation of a refoundation of the congregation.^[25] On 25 July more interested persons joint and they appointed a provisional board of 15, with 170 people who indicated their will to join. On 6 September 1945 a provisional synagogue opened on the street Kielort 22/24 and on 18 September the same year 72 members elected the first postwar board.

References

^ location of Sephardic Community „Newe Salom“
^ "Germany, Hamburg". Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. October 2014. Retrieved January 4, 2017.
^ Günter Marwendel, „Die aschkenasischen Juden im Hamburger Raum (bis 1780)“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 41–60, here footnote 28 on p. 58. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ ^a ^b Günter Marwendel, „Die aschkenasischen Juden im Hamburger Raum (bis 1780)“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 41–60, here p. 44. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ The then mostly Low German-speaking inhabitants of Hamburg and Altona, as well as Dutch-speaking Amsterdamers, mostly conceived Ashkenazim, then usually speaking Yiddish, a High German-derived language, as native speakers of High German, and the Ashkenazim thus chose to distinguish themselves from the Sephardim as High German Jews (Hochdeutsche Israeliten, or in Template:Lang-nl).
^ Günter Marwendel, „Die aschkenasischen Juden im Hamburger Raum (bis 1780)“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 41–60, here p. 45. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Günter Böhm, „Die Sephardim in Hamburg“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 21–40, here p. 21. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Günter Böhm, „Die Sephardim in Hamburg“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 21–40, here p. 22. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Günter Böhm, „Die Sephardim in Hamburg“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 21–40, here p. 23. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Hans Reils, „Beiträge zur ältesten Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg“, in: Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte, vol. 2 (1847), pp. 357–424, here p. 375. (online)
^ Hermann Pathe, Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842), Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, p. 91
^ Hermann Pathe, Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842), Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, pp. 243–244
^ Peter Freimark, „Jüdische Friedhöfe im Hamburger Raum“, in: Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte, vol. 67 (1981), pp. 117–132, here p. 119.
^ Hermann Pathe, Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842), Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, p. 111.
^ Peter Freimark, „Das Oberrabbinat Altona-Hamburg-Wandsbek“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 177–185, here p. 182. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ "Germany, Hamburg". Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. October 2014. Retrieved January 4, 2017.
^ On 4 November 1864 the Hamburg Parliament passed the Law concerning the relations of the local Israelite congregations (Gesetz, betreffend die Verhältnisse der hiesigen israelitischen Gemeinden) with effect of 1 February 1865.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Ina Lorenz, „Die jüdische Gemeinde Hamburg 1860 – 1943: Kaisereich – Weimarer Republik – NS-Staat“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 77–100, here p. 78. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Saskia Rohde, „Synagogen im Hamburger Raum 1680–1943“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 143–175, here p. 157. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ ^a ^b Ina Lorenz and Jörg Berkemann, „Kriegsende und Neubeginn: Zur Entstehung der neuen Jüdischen Gemeinde in Hamburg 1945-1948“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 633–656, here p. 633. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Cf. 'Reich and Prussian Minister of ecclesiastical Affairs', Letter to the Hamburg State Office, 15 January 1938, Staatsarchiv Hamburg, Bestand 113-5, Akte E IV B1, reprinted in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 1: 'Schreiben des Reichs- und Preußischen Ministers', pp. 444seq. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Cf. 'Board of the German-Israelite Congregation of Hamburg', Letter to the Hamburg Office for School and Culture, 24 December 1937, Staatsarchiv Hamburg, Bestand 113-5, Akte E IV B1, reprinted in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 1: 'Schreiben des Reichs- und Preußischen Ministers', pp. 444seq. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ Ina Lorenz and Jörg Berkemann, „Kriegsende und Neubeginn: Zur Entstehung der neuen Jüdischen Gemeinde in Hamburg 1945-1948“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 633–656, here pp. 633seq. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.
^ "The Jewish Community of Hamburg". The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.
^ Ina Lorenz and Jörg Berkemann, „Kriegsende und Neubeginn: Zur Entstehung der neuen Jüdischen Gemeinde in Hamburg 1945-1948“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 633–656, here p. 635. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

External links

Institute for the History of the German Jews (Institut für die Geschichte der deutschen Juden, IGdJ) (in German and English)
- Key Documents of German-Jewish History by the Institute for the History of the German Jews (in German and English)
- Das jüdische Hamburg; Ein historisches Nachschlagewerk by the Institute for the History of the German Jews (in German)

[1] tion of Sephardic Community „Newe Salom“

[2] "Germany, Hamburg". Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. October 2014. Retrieved January 4, 2017.

[3] Günter Marwendel, „Die aschkenasischen Juden im Hamburger Raum (bis 1780)“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 41–60, here footnote 28 on p. 58. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[Marwendel_1991_p44-4] Günter Marwendel, „Die aschkenasischen Juden im Hamburger Raum (bis 1780)“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 41–60, here p. 44. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[5] The then mostly Low German-speaking inhabitants of Hamburg and Altona, as well as Dutch-speaking Amsterdamers, mostly conceived Ashkenazim, then usually speaking Yiddish, a High German-derived language, as native speakers of High German, and the Ashkenazim thus chose to distinguish themselves from the Sephardim as High German Jews (Hochdeutsche Israeliten, or in Template:Lang-nl).

[Marwendel_1991_p45-6] Günter Marwendel, „Die aschkenasischen Juden im Hamburger Raum (bis 1780)“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 41–60, here p. 45. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[Böhm_1991_p21-7] Günter Böhm, „Die Sephardim in Hamburg“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 21–40, here p. 21. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[Böhm_1991_p22-8] Günter Böhm, „Die Sephardim in Hamburg“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 21–40, here p. 22. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[Böhm_1991_p23-9] Günter Böhm, „Die Sephardim in Hamburg“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 21–40, here p. 23. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[10] Hans Reils, „Beiträge zur ältesten Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg“, in: Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte, vol. 2 (1847), pp. 357–424, here p. 375. (online)

[11] Hermann Pathe, Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842), Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, p. 91

[12] Hermann Pathe, Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842), Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, pp. 243–244

[13] Peter Freimark, „Jüdische Friedhöfe im Hamburger Raum“, in: Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte, vol. 67 (1981), pp. 117–132, here p. 119.

[14] Hermann Pathe, Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842), Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, p. 111.

[Freimark_1991_182-15] Peter Freimark, „Das Oberrabbinat Altona-Hamburg-Wandsbek“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 177–185, here p. 182. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[16] "Germany, Hamburg". Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. October 2014. Retrieved January 4, 2017.

[17] On 4 November 1864 the Hamburg Parliament passed the Law concerning the relations of the local Israelite congregations (Gesetz, betreffend die Verhältnisse der hiesigen israelitischen Gemeinden) with effect of 1 February 1865.

[Lorenz_1991_78-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Ina Lorenz, „Die jüdische Gemeinde Hamburg 1860 – 1943: Kaisereich – Weimarer Republik – NS-Staat“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 77–100, here p. 78. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[Rohde_1991_157-19] Saskia Rohde, „Synagogen im Hamburger Raum 1680–1943“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 143–175, here p. 157. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[Lorenz_Berkemann_1991_633-20] Ina Lorenz and Jörg Berkemann, „Kriegsende und Neubeginn: Zur Entstehung der neuen Jüdischen Gemeinde in Hamburg 1945-1948“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 633–656, here p. 633. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[21] Cf. 'Reich and Prussian Minister of ecclesiastical Affairs', Letter to the Hamburg State Office, 15 January 1938, Staatsarchiv Hamburg, Bestand 113-5, Akte E IV B1, reprinted in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 1: 'Schreiben des Reichs- und Preußischen Ministers', pp. 444seq. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[22] Cf. 'Board of the German-Israelite Congregation of Hamburg', Letter to the Hamburg Office for School and Culture, 24 December 1937, Staatsarchiv Hamburg, Bestand 113-5, Akte E IV B1, reprinted in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 1: 'Schreiben des Reichs- und Preußischen Ministers', pp. 444seq. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[Lorenz_Berkemann_1991_633seq-23] Ina Lorenz and Jörg Berkemann, „Kriegsende und Neubeginn: Zur Entstehung der neuen Jüdischen Gemeinde in Hamburg 1945-1948“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 633–656, here pp. 633seq. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

[bh.org.il-24] "The Jewish Community of Hamburg". The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.

[Lorenz_Berkemann_1991_635-25] Ina Lorenz and Jörg Berkemann, „Kriegsende und Neubeginn: Zur Entstehung der neuen Jüdischen Gemeinde in Hamburg 1945-1948“, in: Die Geschichte der Juden in Hamburg: 2 vols., Hamburg: Dölling und Galitz, 1991, vol. 2: 'Die Juden in Hamburg 1590 bis 1990', pp. 633–656, here p. 635. ISBN 3-926174-25-0.

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 So besides the legally recognised ''Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde zu Altona'' there lived many Ashkenaszim in Altona who made no use of its premises and services because they were members of Hamburg's Ashkenazi congregation. As Hamburg's Sephardim called the city's Ashkenazim in Portuguese as ''Tudescos'' (Germans), the latter styled their congregation as ''Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg'' (lit. German Israelite Community at Hamburg; est.&nbsp;1661/1662). In Altona the conditions of residence were favorable, in Hamburg the conditions for business. These were the reasons for the genesis of a branch community of Hamburg's Ashkenazi congregation in Altona.<ref>Hermann Pathe, [http://www.sub.uni-hamburg.de/opus/volltexte/2007/3395 ''Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842)''], Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, p.&nbsp;91</ref> A similar development took place in Hamburg's eastern neighbour, the Danish-Holsteinian city of [[Wandsbek (quarter)|Wandsbek]] where Ashkenazim from Hamburg used to live, or at least used to be legal residents there, whereas their religious affiliation was with the Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg. In the 17th and early 18th century the Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg had more members officially residing and occasionally factually living in Altona or Wandsbek than in Hamburg proper.
-Thanks to immigration from the central eastern Europe, Altona's Ashkenzi congregation became a center of research and scholarship in Jewish teaching (e.g. [[Jonathan Eybeschutz|Jonathan Eybeschütz]], [[Jacob Emden]]), attracting hundreds of students. The officially recognised [[Beth din|Beth Din]] had a reputation as one of the most distinguished in the whole Jewish world.<ref>Hermann Pathe, [http://www.sub.uni-hamburg.de/opus/volltexte/2007/3395 ''Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842)''], Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, pp.&nbsp;243&ndash;244</ref> No wonder that the three Ashkenazi congregations, anyway intertwined by members of Hamburg's Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde passing their working hours and speending many nights intown, although officially residing and occasionally actually living in Altona and Wandsbek established a close coöperation in 1671. Their overwhelming umbrella was styled ''Dreigemeinde AH"U'' ({{lang-he|אה“ו&lrm;}}; i.e. tri-community AH"U, derived from the Hebrew acronym of the initials of Altona, Hamburg, Wandsbek) led by Altona's Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde, most renowned and legally best protected of the three. However, the tri-community was no merger, then legally impossible across state borders.
+Thanks to immigration from the central eastern Europe, Altona's Ashkenzi congregation became a center of research and scholarship in Jewish teaching (e.g. [[Jonathan Eybeschutz|Jonathan Eybeschütz]], [[Jacob Emden]]), attracting hundreds of students. The officially recognised [[Beth din|Beth Din]] had a reputation as one of the most distinguished in the whole Jewish world.<ref>Hermann Pathe, [http://www.sub.uni-hamburg.de/opus/volltexte/2007/3395 ''Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842)''], Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, pp.&nbsp;243&ndash;244</ref> No wonder that the three Ashkenazi congregations, anyway intertwined by members of Hamburg's Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde spending their working hours and many a night intown, although officially residing and occasionally actually living in Altona and Wandsbek, established a close coöperation in 1671. Their overwhelming umbrella was styled ''Dreigemeinde AH"U'' ({{lang-he|אה“ו&lrm;}}; i.e. tri-community AH"U, derived from the Hebrew acronym of the initials of Altona, Hamburg, Wandsbek) led by Altona's Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde, the most renowned and legally best protected of the three. However, the tri-community was no merger, then legally impossible across state borders.
-[[File:Altonaer sheruw.jpg|thumb|left|1910 map of Altona depicting in purple the posts and wires of the [[eruv]]]]
+[[File:Altonaer sheruw.jpg|thumb|1910 map of Altona depicting in purple the posts and wires of the [[eruv]]]]
 A general privilege expired with the rulers' deaths and thus Adolphus' successors [[Ernst of Schaumburg|Ernest]], [[Jobst Herman, Count of Schaumburg|Jobst Herman]] and {{Interlanguage link multi|Otto V, Count of Holstein-Schauenburg|de|3=Otto V. (Schaumburg)|lt=Otto&nbsp;V}} all confirmed it. Following the county's integration in 1640 into the [[Holy Roman Empire|German]] [[Holstein-Glückstadt|Duchy of Holstein-Glückstadt]], ruled in personal union by the kings of [[Denmark–Norway]], on 1&nbsp;August 1641 [[Christian IV of Denmark|King Christian&nbsp;IV]] had formally reconfirmed the Ashkenazim their general privilege including their cemetery and a synagogue,<ref>Peter Freimark, „Jüdische Friedhöfe im Hamburger Raum“, in: ''Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte'', vol.&nbsp;67 (1981), pp.&nbsp;117–132, here p.&nbsp;119.</ref> thus continuing the basis for the existence of the their community.<ref>Hermann Pathe, [http://www.sub.uni-hamburg.de/opus/volltexte/2007/3395 ''Judenschutzsteuern in Altona: Die Abgaben der Juden als Einwohner und als Mitglieder der jüdischen Gemeinde in Altona (1641-1842)''], Hamburg: electr. University Dissertation, 2007, p.&nbsp;111.</ref> By the end of the 17th century the Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde established the {{Interlanguage link multi|Altona Eruv|de|3=Altonaer Eruv}}, maintained until the 1930s, when on 1&nbsp;January 1938 Altona's Hochdeutsche Israeliten-Gemeinde merged with the Ashkenazi congregations of Hamburg (Deutsch-Israelitische Gemeinde zu Hamburg), of [[Harburg-Wilhelmsburg]] (Synagogengemeinde Harburg) and of Wandsbek (Israelitische Gemeinde zu Wandsbek), following the incorporation of the smaller cities into the by far larger Hamburg by way of the [[Greater Hamburg Act]] of 1937.

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