Jump to content

Shola: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit
Line 20: Line 20:
Due to their isolation, altitude and evergreen character, shola forests are home to many [[threatened]] and [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[species]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Some of the species found here have close relatives only in the distant evergreen forests of [[Northeast India]], the [[Himalayas]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Some others are found nowhere else in the world.
Due to their isolation, altitude and evergreen character, shola forests are home to many [[threatened]] and [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[species]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} Some of the species found here have close relatives only in the distant evergreen forests of [[Northeast India]], the [[Himalayas]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Some others are found nowhere else in the world.


The [[Western Ghats]] are one of the globally recognized [[biodiversity hotspot]]s, the unrecognised ones including parts of the southern [[Eastern Ghats]], such as the [[Nallamala Hills]], which are beginning to be explored. [[Colias nilagiriensis]] is a species of butterfly endemic to shola forests above 2000m. Like most other species in the genus [[Colias]], it is found at high altitudes. However, this is the only one found in South India. Among the many larger animals inhabiting a shola-grassland mosaic are [[tiger]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[Asian elephant|elephant]]s and [[gaur]]. The endangered [[Nilgiri tahr]] (an Asian goat-antelope) is endemic to the shola-grassland, and its range is now restricted to a 400-km stretch of shola-grassland mosaic, from the [[Nilgiri Hills]] to the [[Agasthyamalai Hills]].<ref>Misra & Johnsingh 1998</ref> [[Laughingthrush]]es, [[Nilgiri woodpigeon]]s, [[Shortwing (bird)|shortwing]]s, and some of the endemic flycatchers ([[Black-and-orange flycatcher]] and [[Nilgiri flycatcher]]) are some of the 300+ species of birds that inhabit this area. The area shows high endemicity and is rivaled only by the forests in northeast India; 35 percent of the plants, 42 percent of the [[fish]], 48 percent of the [[reptile]]s, and 75 percent of the [[amphibian]]s, and about 13 percent of the [[insects]], about 25 percent not being found east of [[Bangalore]], that live in these forests are endemic species.<ref>Govt. of India 1997</ref><!-- govt of india cannot can be a reliable source, need scientific journal citations - also a lot of comments related to W Ghats rather than sholas -->{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}
The [[Western Ghats]] are one of the globally recognized [[biodiversity hotspot]]s, the unrecognised ones including parts of the southern [[Eastern Ghats]], such as the [[Nallamala Hills]], which are beginning to be explored. [[Colias nilagiriensis]] is a species of butterfly endemic to shola forests above 2000m. Like most other species in the genus [[Colias]], it is found at high altitudes. However, this is the only one found in South India. Among the many larger animals inhabiting a shola-grassland mosaic are [[tiger]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[Asian elephant|elephant]]s and [[gaur]]. The endangered [[Nilgiri tahr]] (of the family [[Bovidae]], wich includes gazelles, antelopes, and wild buffaloes) is endemic to the shola-grassland, and its range is now restricted to a 400-km stretch of shola-grassland mosaic, from the [[Nilgiri Hills]] to the [[Agasthyamalai Hills]].<ref>Misra & Johnsingh 1998</ref> [[Laughingthrush]]es, [[Nilgiri woodpigeon]]s, [[Shortwing (bird)|shortwing]]s, and some of the endemic flycatchers ([[Black-and-orange flycatcher]] and [[Nilgiri flycatcher]]) are some of the 300+ species of birds that inhabit this area. The area shows high endemicity and is rivaled only by the forests in northeast India; 35 percent of the plants, 42 percent of the [[fish]], 48 percent of the [[reptile]]s, and 75 percent of the [[amphibian]]s, and about 13 percent of the [[insects]], about 25 percent not being found east of [[Bangalore]], that live in these forests are endemic species.<ref>Govt. of India 1997</ref><!-- govt of india cannot can be a reliable source, need scientific journal citations - also a lot of comments related to W Ghats rather than sholas -->{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}


== Flora ==
== Flora ==

Revision as of 11:56, 10 April 2021

For the category of art objects produced in West Bengal, see Sholapith. For the album by Awaz, see Shola (album). For people with the given name, see Shola (name).

Sholas in southern western ghats. These are the tropical and sub-tropical montane forest.

Sholas are the local name for patches of stunted tropical montane forest found in valleys amid rolling grassland in the higher montane regions of South India, largely in Kerala. These patches of shola forest are found mainly in the valleys and are usually separated from one another by undulating montane grassland. The shola and grassland together form the shola-grassland complex or mosaic. The word 'Shola' is probably derived from the Tamil language word cÕlai (சோலை) meaning grove.[1]

The shola-forest and grassland complex has been described as a climatic climax vegetation with forest regeneration and expansion restricted by climatic conditions such as frost or soil characteristics while others have suggested that it may have anthropogenic origins in the burning and removal of forests by early herders and shifting agriculturists.[2]

Distribution and origin

Shola forest interspersed in valleys among high altitude grasslands on the Brahmagiri Hills

Shola forests are found in the higher elevation hill regions of the Nilgiris, Anaimalai, around Anamudi, Palni hills, Meghamalai, Agasthyamalai to the south and the Malnad and associated ranges in parts of Wayanad, Coorg, Baba Budangiri, Kudremukh up the north, upto Goa, Satara district and Sindhudurg district in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Although generally said to occur above 2000 meters above sea level, shola forests can be found at 1600 meters elevation in many hill ranges (e.g. Biligiriranga Hills).

The origin of the shola forest and grassland complex has been the subject of scientific debate. Some early researchers suggested that the floristic composition represents a stable final state or climax vegetation. This stability is maintained by climatic conditions such as frost which allow the grass to grow but kill off any forest seedlings.[3] Others have suggested that the grassland may have been created and maintained by early pastoralists and point out that fire has a major role in the maintenance of the grassland.[4] There is evidence for both and several features of the forest trees and the grasslands that have been considered and debated. Pollen analysis from bogs in the Nilgiris suggest that the complex of grassland and forest existed 35,000 years ago, long before human impact began.[5] Long term studies on the dynamic processes of vegetation change continue.[6][7][8]

Fauna

Due to their isolation, altitude and evergreen character, shola forests are home to many threatened and endemic species.[citation needed] Some of the species found here have close relatives only in the distant evergreen forests of Northeast India, the Himalayas and Southeast Asia. Some others are found nowhere else in the world.

The Western Ghats are one of the globally recognized biodiversity hotspots, the unrecognised ones including parts of the southern Eastern Ghats, such as the Nallamala Hills, which are beginning to be explored. Colias nilagiriensis is a species of butterfly endemic to shola forests above 2000m. Like most other species in the genus Colias, it is found at high altitudes. However, this is the only one found in South India. Among the many larger animals inhabiting a shola-grassland mosaic are tigers, leopards, elephants and gaur. The endangered Nilgiri tahr (of the family Bovidae, wich includes gazelles, antelopes, and wild buffaloes) is endemic to the shola-grassland, and its range is now restricted to a 400-km stretch of shola-grassland mosaic, from the Nilgiri Hills to the Agasthyamalai Hills.[9] Laughingthrushes, Nilgiri woodpigeons, shortwings, and some of the endemic flycatchers (Black-and-orange flycatcher and Nilgiri flycatcher) are some of the 300+ species of birds that inhabit this area. The area shows high endemicity and is rivaled only by the forests in northeast India; 35 percent of the plants, 42 percent of the fish, 48 percent of the reptiles, and 75 percent of the amphibians, and about 13 percent of the insects, about 25 percent not being found east of Bangalore, that live in these forests are endemic species.[10][citation needed]

Flora

At least 25 types of trees are present in the major sholas of the Nilgiri Hills.[11] The dominant trees in this type of forest are Michelia niligarica, Bischofia javanica (bishop wood), Calophyllum tomentosum, Toona ciliata (Indian mahogany), Eugenia (myrtle) spp., Ficus glomerata (atti or cluster fig tree or gular fig tree) and Mallotus spp. Shola forests have an upper storey of small trees, generally Pygeum gardneri, Schefflera racemosa, Linociera ramiflora, Syzygium spp., Rhododendron nilgiricum, Mahonia nepalensis, Elaeocarpus recurvatus, Ilex denticulata, Magnolia nilagirica, Actinodaphne bourdillonii, and Litsea wightiana. Below the upper story is a low under story and a dense shrub layer. Strobilanthes kunthiana, known as Kurinji or Neelakurinji in Tamil, is a well known shrub endemic to Western Ghats that blossoms only once in 12 years.[12] There is a thick concentration of mosses growing on the under story and many ferns in the sunlit narrow transition to grassland.

Exacum bicolor, a shola grassland plant

Shola forests are interspersed with montane grasslands, characterized by frost- and fire-resistant grass species like Chrysopogon zeylanicus, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Arundinella ciliata, Arundinella mesophylla, Arundinella tuberculata, Themeda tremula, and Sehima nervosum.

Threats

Invasive introduced species are a serious threat to this high altitude ecosystem. Some, like Acacia mearnsii and Eucalyptus globulus are the consequence of commercial plantation and afforestation drives. Other threatening invasive species include Lantana camara and Ageratina adenophora.[13]

Conservation

Periodic fires have been considered to help maintain the grassland, however, excessive burning has led to a shrinkage of forest patches and the growth of invasive species.[14]

The shola biome has a high water retention capacity and exists as the primary source of the water for the high altitude organisms is the origin of many streams and rivers in the Western Ghats.[11]

References

  1. ^ Fabricius, Johann Philipp (1972), J. P. Fabricius's Tamil and English dictionary (4th ed., rev. and enl. ed.), Evangelical Lutheran Mission Pub. House, p. 457
  2. ^ Meher-Homji VM (1997). "Phytogeography of the South Indian Hill Stations". Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 94 (4): 230–242. doi:10.2307/2483901. JSTOR 2483901.
  3. ^ Ranganathan, C. R. (1938). "Studies in the ecology of the shola grass-land vegetation of the Nilgiri Plateau". Indian Forester. 64: 523–541.
  4. ^ Bor, N. L. (1938). "The vegetation of the Nilgiris". Indian Forester. 64: 600–609.
  5. ^ Sutra, J-P; R Bonnefille & M. Fontugne (1997). "Etude palynologique d'un nouveau sondage dans les marai de Sandynallah (Massif des Nilgiri, Sud-ouest de L'Inde)" (PDF). Géographie Physique et Quaternaire. 51 (3): 415–426. doi:10.7202/033140ar.
  6. ^ Thomas, S. M. Thomas & M. W. Palmer (2007). "The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India: Community ecology and conservation" (PDF). Community Ecology. 8 (1): 67–73. doi:10.1556/ComEc.8.2007.1.9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011.
  7. ^ Shibu Jose; A. Sreepathy; B. Mohan Kumar; V.K. Venugopal (1994). "Structural, floristic and edaphic attributes of the grassland-shola forests of Eravikulam in peninsular India". Forest Ecology and Management. 65 (2&3): 279–291. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(94)90176-7.
  8. ^ Caner, L & Bourgeon G (2001). "Andisols of the Nilgiri highlands: new insight into their classification, age and genesis" (PDF). In Y. Gunnell & B.P. Radhakrishna (eds.). Sahyadri : The Great Escarpment of the Indian Subcontinent (Patterns of Landscape Development in the Western Ghats). No. 47. Bangalore: Geological Society of India. pp. 905–918.
  9. ^ Misra & Johnsingh 1998
  10. ^ Govt. of India 1997
  11. ^ a b Premalatha S., Sanil R. & Franklin Charles Jose. 2009. Shola trees in the upper Nilgiris of Western Ghats. Journal of Basic & Applied Biology 3(3&4),97-102.
  12. ^ Burley; Styles, eds. (1976). Tropical Trees. London: Academic Press. pp. 138–139.
  13. ^ S. M. Thomas & M. W. Palmer (2007), "The montane grasslands of the Western Ghats, India: Community ecology and conservation" (PDF), Community Ecology, Akademia Kiado, Budapest, p. 8(1): 67–73, retrieved 20 July 2016
  14. ^ Rawat, G.S, P.V. Karunakaran, and V.K Uniyal. 2003. Shola grasslands of the Western Ghats: conservation status and management needs. ENVIS Bulletin on Grassland Ecosystems and Agroforestry 1(1):57-64. 112 kB PDF Archived 2 March 2005 at the Wayback Machine
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shola.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Shola&oldid=1017031968"