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The depiction of Indian soldiers and the names of the three [[Ancient India]]n provinces including Gandāra still appear in trilingual cuneiform labels above their respective figures on the tomb of [[Artaxerxes II]] (c.358 BC).<ref name="Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire 1948 291–292">{{harvnb|Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire|1948|pp=291–292}}: "The Gandarians thus make their last appearance as Persian tribute paying subjects in the lists of Artaxerxes, though the land continued to be known under the name of Gandhara down to classic Indian times."</ref><ref name="Inscription A2Pa of Artaxerxes II">[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/a2pa/? Inscription A2Pa of Artaxerxes II]</ref><ref name="PL271">{{cite book |last1=Lecoq |first1=Pierre |title=Les inscriptions de la perse achemenide (1997) |pages=271–272 |url=https://archive.org/details/LesInscriptionsDeLaPerseAchemenide1997/page/n141 |language=French}}</ref>
The depiction of Indian soldiers and the names of the three [[Ancient India]]n provinces including Gandāra still appear in trilingual cuneiform labels above their respective figures on the tomb of [[Artaxerxes II]] (c.358 BC).<ref name="Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire 1948 291–292">{{harvnb|Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire|1948|pp=291–292}}: "The Gandarians thus make their last appearance as Persian tribute paying subjects in the lists of Artaxerxes, though the land continued to be known under the name of Gandhara down to classic Indian times."</ref><ref name="Inscription A2Pa of Artaxerxes II">[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/a2pa/? Inscription A2Pa of Artaxerxes II]</ref><ref name="PL271">{{cite book |last1=Lecoq |first1=Pierre |title=Les inscriptions de la perse achemenide (1997) |pages=271–272 |url=https://archive.org/details/LesInscriptionsDeLaPerseAchemenide1997/page/n141 |language=French}}</ref>
==History==

===Achaemenid Gandhara===
{{Main|Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley}}
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}}
[[File:Athens coin discovered in Pushkalavati.jpg|thumb|[[Athens]] coin ({{circa|500/490–485 BC}}) discovered in [[Pushkalavati]]. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far east.<ref>O. Bopearachchi, “Premières frappes locales de l’Inde du Nord-Ouest: nouvelles données,” in Trésors d’Orient: Mélanges offerts à Rika Gyselen, Fig. 1 [https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=199773 CNG Coins]</ref> Such coins were circulating in the area as currency, at least as far as the [[Indus]], during the reign of the [[Achaemenids]].<ref name="OB300">{{cite book |last1=Bopearachchi |first1=Osmund |title=Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest) |pages=300–301 |url=https://www.academia.edu/15798938 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh05-106.html |title=US Department of Defense |access-date=7 October 2018 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610004813/https://www.cemml.colostate.edu/cultural/09476/afgh05-106.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="JC">{{cite book |last1=Errington |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Trust |first2=Ancient India and Iran |last3=Museum |first3=Fitzwilliam |title=The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan |date=1992 |publisher=Ancient India and Iran Trust |isbn=9780951839911 |pages=57–59 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfLpAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref name="OB308">{{cite book |last1=Bopearachchi |first1=Osmund |title=Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest) |pages=308– |url=https://www.academia.edu/15798938 |language=en}}</ref> ]]
During the reign of Gandharan king Pushkarasakti, the region’s security was fractured by him engaging in power struggles against his local rivals. [[King Darius I]] of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] took advantage of the opportunity and planned for an invasion. In 518 BCE, Darius led his army through the Khyber Pass and southwards in stages, eventually reaching the [[Arabian Sea]] coast in Sindh by 516 BCE.
[[File:DNA inscription Gadara.jpg|thumb|center|The name ''Gadāra'' ([[:Wikt:𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼|𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼]] in [[Old Persian cuneiform]]) in the [[DNa inscription]] of [[Darius the Great]] (circa 500 BC).]]
[[File:DNA inscription Gadara.jpg|thumb|center|The name ''Gadāra'' ([[:Wikt:𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼|𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼]] in [[Old Persian cuneiform]]) in the [[DNa inscription]] of [[Darius the Great]] (circa 500 BC).]]
Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were MD established with provincial capitals.

[[Gandhara#Part of Achaemenid Empire|Gandhara]] satrapy, established 518 BCE with its capital at [[Pushkalavati]] ([[Charsadda]]).<ref>Rafi U. Samad, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA33 ''The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys.''] Algora Publishing, 2011, p. 32 {{ISBN|0875868592}}</ref> Gandhara Satrapy was established in the general region of the old Gandhara grave culture, in what is today [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. During Achaemenid rule, the [[Kharosthi]] alphabet, derived from the one used for Aramaic (the official language of Achaemenids), developed here and remained the national script of Gandhara until 200 CE.

The inscription on Darius' (521–486 BC) tomb at [[Naqsh-e Rustam|Naqsh-i-Rustam]] near Persepolis records Gadāra (Gandāra) along with [[Hindush]] (Hənduš, Sindh) in the list of ''satrapies''. By about 380 BC the Persian hold on the region had weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang up in Gandhara.

In 327 BCE, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered Gandhara as well as the Indian ''satrapies'' of the Persian Empire. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by his court historians and by [[Arrian]] (around 175 AD) in his ''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' and by other chroniclers many centuries after the event.

===Macedonian Gandhara===
{{Main|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Macedonian Empire}}
[[File:Alexander victory coin Babylon silver c 322 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright|"Victory coin" of Alexander the Great, minted in [[Babylon]] {{circa|322 BC}}, following his campaigns in [[Bactria]] and the [[Indus Valley]]. ''Obverse'': Alexander being crowned by [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. ''Reverse'': Alexander attacking king [[King Porus|Porus]] on his elephant. Silver. [[British Museum]].]]
In the winter of 327 BC, Alexander invited all the chieftains in the remaining five Achaemenid satraps to submit to his authority. [[Ambhi]], then ruler of Taxila in the former [[Hindush]] satrapy complied, but the remaining tribes and clans in the former satraps of Gandhara, Arachosia, Sattagydia and Gedrosia rejected Alexander's offer.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

The first tribe they encountered were the [[Aspasioi]] tribe of the [[Kunar Valley]], who initiated a fierce battle against Alexander, in which he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi eventually lost and 40,000 people were enslaved. Alexander then continued in a southwestern direction where he encountered the [[Assakenoi]] tribe of the [[Swat, Pakistan|Swat]] & [[Buner]] valleys in April 326 BC. The Assakenoi fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander and his army in the cities of Ora, Bazira ([[Barikot]]) and Massaga. So enraged was Alexander about the resistance put up by the Assakenoi that he killed the entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubble. A similar slaughter then followed at Ora,<ref>{{cite book|title=History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion|author=Mukerjee, R. K.|page=46}}</ref> another stronghold of the Assakenoi. The stories of these slaughters reached numerous Assakenians, who began fleeing to Aornos, a hill-fort located between [[Shangla]] and [[Kohistan District, Pakistan|Kohistan]]. Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill-fort, eventually capturing and destroying the fort and killing everyone inside. The remaining smaller tribes either surrendered or like the Astanenoi tribe of [[Pushkalavati ]]([[Charsadda]]) were quickly neutralized where 38,000 soldiers and 230,000 oxen were captured by Alexander.<ref>Curtius in McCrindle, p. 192, J. W. McCrindle; ''History of Punjab'', Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punjabi University, Patiala (editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; ''Kambojas Through the Ages'', 2005, p. 134, Kirpal Singh.</ref> Eventually Alexander's smaller force would meet with the larger force which had come through the Khyber Pass met at [[Attock]]. With the conquest of Gandhara complete, Alexander switched to strengthening his military supply line, which by now stretched dangerously vulnerable over the [[Hindu Kush]] back to [[Balkh]] in Bactria.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

After conquering Gandhara and solidifying his supply line back to Bactria, Alexander combined his forces with the King Ambhi of Taxila and crossed the River Indus in July 326 BC to begin the Archosia (Punjab) campaign. Alexander nominated officers as Satraps of the new provinces, and in Gandhara, [[Oxyartes]] was nominated to the position of Satrap in 326 BC.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

===Mauryan Empire===
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2021}}
[[File:Gandhara1.JPG|thumb|Coin of Early Gandhara Janapada: AR Shatamana and one-eighth Shatamana (round), Taxila-Gandhara region, {{circa|600–300 BC}}]]
[[File:I9 18satamana TaxilaGandhara 1ar (8482057992).jpg|thumb|A monetary silver coin of the satrapy of Gandhara about 500–400 BC. '''Obv:''' Gandhara symbol representing 6 weapons with one point between two weapons; At the bottom of the point, a hollow moon. '''Rev:''' Empty. '''Dimensions:''' 14 mm '''Weight:''' 1.4 g.]]
[[Chandragupta Maurya]], the founder of the [[Maurya]]n dynasty, is said to have lived in Taxila when Alexander captured the city. According to tradition, he trained under [[Kautilya]], who remained his chief adviser throughout his reign. Supposedly using Gandhara and Vahika as his base, Chandragupta led a rebellion against the [[Magadha]] Empire and ascended the throne at [[Pataliputra]] in 321 BCE, however, there are no contemporary records of this.

After a battle with [[Seleucus Nicator]] (Alexander's successor in Asia) in 305 BC, the [[Mauryan]] Emperor extended his domain up to and including present Southern [[Afghanistan]]. With the completion of the Empire's Grand Trunk Road, the region prospered as a centre of trade. Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire for about a century and a half.

[[Ashoka]], the grandson of Chandragupta, was one of the greatest Indian rulers. Like his grandfather, Ashoka also started his career in Gandhara as a governor. Later he became a [[Buddhist]] and promoted Buddhism. He built many ''stupas'' in Gandhara. Mauryan control over the northwestern frontier, including the [[Yona]]s, [[Kambojas]], and the Gandharas, is attested from the [[Rock Edicts]] left by Ashoka. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were [[Cognatic kinship|cognate]] people.<ref>Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association pour l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France.</ref><ref>Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan Saletore.</ref><ref>Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p 119, David Gordon White; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums Association of India; The Pāradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p 52, Dr B. N. Mukherjee – Pāradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; The Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of Indian Numismatics and Sigillography – Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p 114, J. G. R. Forlong.</ref> It is also contended that the [[Kuru Kingdom|Kurus]], [[Kambojas]], Gandharas and [[Bahlikas]] were cognate people and all had Iranian affinities,<ref>Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) – Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to its racial and linguistic affiliations, pp 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of India, 1944, p 153, Chandra Chakraberty – Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed – Pakistan.</ref> or that the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and hence influencing each other's language.<ref>Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938, pp 38, 98 Dr T. L. Shah.</ref> However, the local language of Gandhara is represented by Panini's conservative ''bhāṣā'' ("language"), which is entirely different from the Iranian (Late Avestan) language of the Kamboja that is indicated by [[Patanjali]]'s quote of Kambojan śavati 'to go' (= Late Avestan šava(i)ti).{{efn|group=note|''NOTE'': See long discussion under ''[[mahajanapada]]'' from the Ancient Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya's list of ''mahajanapadas''.}}


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 19:54, 29 April 2021

Gandāra
Eastern territories of the Achaemenid Empire, including Sattagydia, next to Gandāra, and Hindush, the territory of the Indus.
𓉔𓃭𓐍𓂧𓇌𓈉
h-rw-ḫ-d-y
Gandāra
Gandāra soldier of the Achaemenid army
Xerxes I tomb, Gandāra soldier, circa 470 BC.
Xerxes I tomb, Gandāra soldier, circa 470 BC (detail).
Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire.

Gandāra, or Gadāra in Achaemenid inscriptions (Old Persian cuneiform: 𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼, Gadāra, also transliterated as Gandāra since the nasal "n" before consonants was omitted in the Old Persian script, and simplified as Gandāra or sometimes Gandara)[1] was one of the easternmost provinces of the Achaemenid Empire in South Asia, following the Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley. It appears in various Achaemenid inscriptions such as the Behistun Inscription, or the DNa inscription of Darius the Great.[2]

The province was also referred to as Paruparaesanna (Greek: Parapamisadae) in the Babylonian and Elamite versions of the Behistun inscription.[2] The extent of the province was apparently wider than the actual geographical region of Gandhara.[3]

According to Herodotus, soldiers of Gandāra participated to the Second Persian invasion of Greece around 480 BC.[4] They had a different equipment from the Hindush, rather akin to that of the Bactrians, and were under the command of Artyphius, son of Artabanus:

The Bactrians in the army wore a headgear most like to the Median, carrying their native bows of reed, and short spears. (...) The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians, Gandarians, and Dadicae in the army had the same equipment as the Bactrians. The Parthians and Chorasmians had for their commander Artabazus son of Pharnaces, the Sogdians Azanes son of Artaeus, the Gandarians and Dadicae Artyphius son of Artabanus.

— Herodotus VII 64-66

The depiction of Indian soldiers and the names of the three Ancient Indian provinces including Gandāra still appear in trilingual cuneiform labels above their respective figures on the tomb of Artaxerxes II (c.358 BC).[5][6][7]

History

Achaemenid Gandhara

Main article: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley
Athens coin (c. 500/490–485 BC) discovered in Pushkalavati. This coin is the earliest known example of its type to be found so far east.[8] Such coins were circulating in the area as currency, at least as far as the Indus, during the reign of the Achaemenids.[9][10][11][12]

During the reign of Gandharan king Pushkarasakti, the region’s security was fractured by him engaging in power struggles against his local rivals. King Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire took advantage of the opportunity and planned for an invasion. In 518 BCE, Darius led his army through the Khyber Pass and southwards in stages, eventually reaching the Arabian Sea coast in Sindh by 516 BCE.

The name Gadāra (𐎥𐎭𐎠𐎼 in Old Persian cuneiform) in the DNa inscription of Darius the Great (circa 500 BC).

Under Persian rule, a system of centralized administration, with a bureaucratic system, was introduced into the Indus Valley for the first time. Provinces or "satrapy" were MD established with provincial capitals.

Gandhara satrapy, established 518 BCE with its capital at Pushkalavati (Charsadda).[13] Gandhara Satrapy was established in the general region of the old Gandhara grave culture, in what is today Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. During Achaemenid rule, the Kharosthi alphabet, derived from the one used for Aramaic (the official language of Achaemenids), developed here and remained the national script of Gandhara until 200 CE.

The inscription on Darius' (521–486 BC) tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolis records Gadāra (Gandāra) along with Hindush (Hənduš, Sindh) in the list of satrapies. By about 380 BC the Persian hold on the region had weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang up in Gandhara.

In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Gandhara as well as the Indian satrapies of the Persian Empire. The expeditions of Alexander were recorded by his court historians and by Arrian (around 175 AD) in his Anabasis Alexandri and by other chroniclers many centuries after the event.

Macedonian Gandhara

Main articles: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great and Macedonian Empire
"Victory coin" of Alexander the Great, minted in Babylon c. 322 BC, following his campaigns in Bactria and the Indus Valley. Obverse: Alexander being crowned by Nike. Reverse: Alexander attacking king Porus on his elephant. Silver. British Museum.

In the winter of 327 BC, Alexander invited all the chieftains in the remaining five Achaemenid satraps to submit to his authority. Ambhi, then ruler of Taxila in the former Hindush satrapy complied, but the remaining tribes and clans in the former satraps of Gandhara, Arachosia, Sattagydia and Gedrosia rejected Alexander's offer.[citation needed]

The first tribe they encountered were the Aspasioi tribe of the Kunar Valley, who initiated a fierce battle against Alexander, in which he himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart. However, the Aspasioi eventually lost and 40,000 people were enslaved. Alexander then continued in a southwestern direction where he encountered the Assakenoi tribe of the Swat & Buner valleys in April 326 BC. The Assakenoi fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander and his army in the cities of Ora, Bazira (Barikot) and Massaga. So enraged was Alexander about the resistance put up by the Assakenoi that he killed the entire population of Massaga and reduced its buildings to rubble. A similar slaughter then followed at Ora,[14] another stronghold of the Assakenoi. The stories of these slaughters reached numerous Assakenians, who began fleeing to Aornos, a hill-fort located between Shangla and Kohistan. Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged the strategic hill-fort, eventually capturing and destroying the fort and killing everyone inside. The remaining smaller tribes either surrendered or like the Astanenoi tribe of Pushkalavati (Charsadda) were quickly neutralized where 38,000 soldiers and 230,000 oxen were captured by Alexander.[15] Eventually Alexander's smaller force would meet with the larger force which had come through the Khyber Pass met at Attock. With the conquest of Gandhara complete, Alexander switched to strengthening his military supply line, which by now stretched dangerously vulnerable over the Hindu Kush back to Balkh in Bactria.[citation needed]

After conquering Gandhara and solidifying his supply line back to Bactria, Alexander combined his forces with the King Ambhi of Taxila and crossed the River Indus in July 326 BC to begin the Archosia (Punjab) campaign. Alexander nominated officers as Satraps of the new provinces, and in Gandhara, Oxyartes was nominated to the position of Satrap in 326 BC.[citation needed]

Mauryan Empire

Coin of Early Gandhara Janapada: AR Shatamana and one-eighth Shatamana (round), Taxila-Gandhara region, c. 600–300 BC
A monetary silver coin of the satrapy of Gandhara about 500–400 BC. Obv: Gandhara symbol representing 6 weapons with one point between two weapons; At the bottom of the point, a hollow moon. Rev: Empty. Dimensions: 14 mm Weight: 1.4 g.

Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, is said to have lived in Taxila when Alexander captured the city. According to tradition, he trained under Kautilya, who remained his chief adviser throughout his reign. Supposedly using Gandhara and Vahika as his base, Chandragupta led a rebellion against the Magadha Empire and ascended the throne at Pataliputra in 321 BCE, however, there are no contemporary records of this.

After a battle with Seleucus Nicator (Alexander's successor in Asia) in 305 BC, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domain up to and including present Southern Afghanistan. With the completion of the Empire's Grand Trunk Road, the region prospered as a centre of trade. Gandhara remained a part of the Mauryan Empire for about a century and a half.

Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, was one of the greatest Indian rulers. Like his grandfather, Ashoka also started his career in Gandhara as a governor. Later he became a Buddhist and promoted Buddhism. He built many stupas in Gandhara. Mauryan control over the northwestern frontier, including the Yonas, Kambojas, and the Gandharas, is attested from the Rock Edicts left by Ashoka. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas and Kambojas were cognate people.[16][17][18] It is also contended that the Kurus, Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people and all had Iranian affinities,[19] or that the Gandhara and Kamboja were nothing but two provinces of one empire and hence influencing each other's language.[20] However, the local language of Gandhara is represented by Panini's conservative bhāṣā ("language"), which is entirely different from the Iranian (Late Avestan) language of the Kamboja that is indicated by Patanjali's quote of Kambojan śavati 'to go' (= Late Avestan šava(i)ti).[note 1]

See also

References

  1. ^ Some sounds are omitted in the writing of Old Persian, and are shown with a raised letter.Old Persian p.164Old Persian p.13. In particular Old Persian nasals such as "n" were omitted in writing before consonants Old Persian p.17Old Persian p.25
  2. ^ a b Perfrancesco Callieri, INDIA ii. Historical Geography, Encyclopaedia Iranica, 15 December 2004.
  3. ^ Eggermont, Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan 1975, p. 177: "One should, therefore, be careful to distinguish the limited geographical unit of Gandhāra from the political one bearing the same name."
  4. ^ Herodotus VII 64-66
  5. ^ Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire 1948, pp. 291–292: "The Gandarians thus make their last appearance as Persian tribute paying subjects in the lists of Artaxerxes, though the land continued to be known under the name of Gandhara down to classic Indian times."
  6. ^ Inscription A2Pa of Artaxerxes II
  7. ^ Lecoq, Pierre. Les inscriptions de la perse achemenide (1997) (in French). pp. 271–272.
  8. ^ O. Bopearachchi, “Premières frappes locales de l’Inde du Nord-Ouest: nouvelles données,” in Trésors d’Orient: Mélanges offerts à Rika Gyselen, Fig. 1 CNG Coins
  9. ^ Bopearachchi, Osmund. Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest). pp. 300–301.
  10. ^ "US Department of Defense". Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 7 October 2018.
  11. ^ Errington, Elizabeth; Trust, Ancient India and Iran; Museum, Fitzwilliam (1992). The Crossroads of Asia: transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan. Ancient India and Iran Trust. pp. 57–59. ISBN 9780951839911.
  12. ^ Bopearachchi, Osmund. Coin Production and Circulation in Central Asia and North-West India (Before and after Alexander's Conquest). pp. 308–.
  13. ^ Rafi U. Samad, The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys. Algora Publishing, 2011, p. 32 ISBN 0875868592
  14. ^ Mukerjee, R. K. History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion. p. 46.
  15. ^ Curtius in McCrindle, p. 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punjabi University, Patiala (editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p. 134, Kirpal Singh.
  16. ^ Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association pour l'encouragement des etudes grecques en France.
  17. ^ Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp 237, 324, Rajaram Narayan Saletore.
  18. ^ Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p 119, David Gordon White; Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, Museums Association of India; The Pāradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, 1972, p 52, Dr B. N. Mukherjee – Pāradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 1989, p 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; The Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy of Indian Numismatics and Sigillography – Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p 114, J. G. R. Forlong.
  19. ^ Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India) – Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Chandra Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to its racial and linguistic affiliations, pp 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of India, 1944, p 153, Chandra Chakraberty – Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 330, Qamarud Din Ahmed – Pakistan.
  20. ^ Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, 1938, pp 38, 98 Dr T. L. Shah.


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