Geophilus flavus: Difference between revisions
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== Distribution == |
== Distribution == |
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The species is widely distributed across regions |
The species is widely distributed across regions of [[Europe]], [[North America]] and [[Australia]], in suitable local environments such as grassy woodlands and forests.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Bonato|first=Lucio|last2=Lopresti|first2=Massimo|last3=Minelli|first3=Alessandro|last4=Cerretti|first4=Pierfilippo|date=2014-09-29|title=ChiloKey, an interactive identification tool for the geophilomorph centipedes of Europe (Chilopoda, Geophilomorpha)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.443.7530|journal=ZooKeys|volume=443|pages=1–9|doi=10.3897/zookeys.443.7530|issn=1313-2970}}</ref> ''Geophilus flavus'' can be found throughout most of the [[Palearctic realm|Palaearctic]] region, from North-West [[Africa]] through to [[Siberia]].<ref name=":15" /> The species is common in the entire [[Baltic states|Baltic]] basin, occurring in a range of tropical, costal and temperate habitats.<ref name=":15" /> ''G.flavus'' are particularly sensitive to relative humidity, as they lose water through their exoskeleton, spiracles and cuticles.<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Blackburn|first=James|last2=Farrow|first2=Malcolm|last3=Arthur|first3=Wallace|date=2006-02-28|title=Factors influencing the distribution, abundance and diversity of geophilomorph and lithobiomorph centipedes: Distribution and abundance of centipedes|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1017/S0952836902000262|journal=Journal of Zoology|language=en|volume=256|issue=2|pages=221–232|doi=10.1017/S0952836902000262}}</ref> As such, the species is most abundant in microsites of high humidity and rainfall''.<ref name=":16" />'' |
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== Reproduction == |
== Reproduction == |
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Revision as of 10:17, 31 May 2021
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| Species: | G. flavus
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Geophilus flavus is a terrestrial, soil-dwelling, species of centipede[2] in the Geophilidae family. Geophilus flavus occur in a range of habitats across central Europe, North America, Australia and other tropical regions.[3] Geophilomorph centipedes, like centipedes generally, are primary predators in small scale soil communities.[4] Fossil records of the species spanning 420 million years provide important information about the nature and effect of high-level arthropod relationships in the maintenance of soil food chains.[4] However, given their lack of economic value and marginal medical significance, G.flavus remains largely understudied in mainstream research.[5]
Description
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These centipedes are yellow in colour, have 49–57 pairs of legs, and may grow up to 45 millimetres (1.8 in) in length.[6][7] They are sightless, and rely on specialised sensory organs to sense movement, humidity and light.[8] Like other myriapods, they have an exoskeleton and a pair of antennae on their head and rear.[9] These antennae are used to locate prey and decode olfactory and tactile stimuli.[10] Young Geophilus flavus centipedes are epimorphic, and are able to regenerate lost legs.[11] G.flavus are hatched with a variable number of up to 191 leg bearing segments on a homogenous trunk.[11] The first pair of legs have small pincer-like claws called forcipules which house poison ducts.[9] These forcipules allow G.flavus to grab and immobilise their prey prior to consumption.[9]
Distribution
The species is widely distributed across regions of Europe, North America and Australia, in suitable local environments such as grassy woodlands and forests.[12] Geophilus flavus can be found throughout most of the Palaearctic region, from North-West Africa through to Siberia.[12] The species is common in the entire Baltic basin, occurring in a range of tropical, costal and temperate habitats.[12] G.flavus are particularly sensitive to relative humidity, as they lose water through their exoskeleton, spiracles and cuticles.[13] As such, the species is most abundant in microsites of high humidity and rainfall.[13]
Reproduction
The species is generally solitary unless guarding eggs or hatchlings.[14] The females lay clutches of 50-60 eggs in soil or rotten wood. They stand guard over the eggs until the young are hatched, protecting their brood by lying in a sternum-upward position.[11] This positions the female's defensive glands away from the young, protecting the vulnerable eggs from poisonous secretions.[11]
Diet and predation
Geophilus flavus is a major invertebrate predator in forest soil food webs.[4] Unlike other subgroups of centipede, such as Lithobiomorphs, Geophilomorphs actively seek out their prey by searching through leaf litter and mineral soil.[4] G. flavus is an opportunistic predator, preying on a wide range of invertebrates and other readily available food sources.[4] As their diet is diverse and environment-specific, there has been minimal research on specific predator-prey relationships.[4] Generalised trophic cascades, indirect food web maps, indicate that predatory invertebrates such as G.flavus have a significant impact on energy and nutrient transfer.[2]
Consumption behaviour
The consumption behaviours of G. flavus are regulated by seasonal and circadian rhythms.[15] These rhythms affect the metabolic and physiological processes of the species, particularly during periods of hibernation or food scarcity.[15] Soil communities are greatly impacted by seasonal or temporal changes, and changes in climate result in altered feeding patterns.[16] In periods of increased temperature and soil dryness as a result of season or from ongoing climate change, G. flavus displays higher rates of food consumption.[16] Increased temperatures facilitate higher nutrient and carbon cycling, as well as increased litter decomposition.[16] These decomposition processes increase the production of bacteria and fungi, key dietary components of the secondary consumers that G. flavus preys upon.[17] The centipede's control over trophic cascades and direct feeding interactions is increased by rising temperatures.[17] Conversely, during colder months when prey is less abundant and G. flavus is less active, feeding interactions increase across the entire soil community.[15] During these periods of decreased activity, G. flavus has less top-down predator control.[clarification needed] The centipede instead accumulates reserve materials in the fat body for delayed nutrient absorption.[15] G. flavus enters a hibernation state where fat structures change in order to support long-term sustenance.[17]
Diet
The diet of Geophilus flavus is relatively generalised, and is flexible depending on available food sources.[17] Gut content analysis of the centipede reveals high levels of lumbricid and enchytraeid proteins, nutrient markers of small soil earthworms.[17] G.flavus predominantly preys upon smaller invertebrates such as worms, mites and insect larvae.[4] The size and type of prey Geophilus flavus consumes vary across different aged and sized centipedes.[17] Larger centipedes have higher mobility, and can move greater distances in the soil environment, thus they have access to a wider range of prey than smaller centipedes.[17]
Habitat structures
The presence of G. flavus in soil environments impacts rates of bio-organic decomposition and determines top-down prey relationships.[15] They play a key role in maintaining ecological stability in small-scale soil communities by managing smaller prey populations.[3]
Soil community
G. flavus inhabits a diverse range of organic structures including soil, rocks, trees, bark and decomposing leaf litter.[15] The species dwells in porous underground soil structures alongside other small invertebrates.[3] This environment provides an ample food source and is relatively buffered against extreme fluctuations in temperature and moisture.[18] The texture and thickness of the leaf litter above the soil surface provides structural niches which facilitate microhabitats and a diversity of small invertebrates that Geophilus flavus hunts.[19] The nature and structure of the habitat is a large determinant of predator-prey relationships, as denser organic layers increase the search time required for centipedes to locate prey.[4]
Behaviour in habitat
G. flavus generally avoids light and displays a distinct preference for moister habitats.[18] It is a cryptozoic species, and spends most of the daytime under stones and leaf litter, waiting until night time to hunt.[8] Depending on the season, G. flavus will burrow at different depths in the soil. In wetter, more tropical weather, the centipede will burrow closer to the surface of the soil at around 7cm.[8] In dryer weather, the centipede burrows at a deeper depth between 7-14cm.[8] G. flavus moves through the soil similarly to earthworms, expanding their length forward, and then contracting in order to pull their body towards their head.[10] This movement creates soil tunnels and burrows, allowing the flow of air and water towards underground plant roots.[10] G. flavus in more temperate regions are generally perennial, living longer with a lower reproductive potential than their tropical counterparts.[8]
Ecological development
G. flavus has specific ecological adaptations which make it suited to live in a diversity of habitats.[20] G.flavus elongated body is specially adapted for movement through deep soil layers, narrow galleries and clefts.[18] The species also has developed evolutionary mechanisms which increase its osmotic and respiratory capacity in low burrows where oxygen is scarce.[5] The species has adapted to operate without hemocyanin, an oxygen carrying protein required by other arthropods to live in low oxygen conditions.[20] The body of G.flavus is also suited to predation, allowing the centipede to move through leaf litter, narrow cracks and underground structures with minimal restriction.[8] This high degree of mobility makes G.flavus a powerful predator in small soil communities. G.flavus has a specialised fat body, a mass of cells between the epidermis and digestive system which accumulates lipids, glycogen and proteins.[15] The fat body stores excess nutrients and responds to seasonal changes, increasing nutrient retention where necessary.[15] The highly adjustable fat body allows G.flavus to maximise prey abundance when environments are warmer, retaining nutrients for later conversion, usually during hibernation periods.[5] This evolutionary adaptation is specific to arthropods, and ensures greater species longevity across changing seasons and environments.[14]
Cultural significance
Although there are no specific references to Geophilus flavus in culture or folklore, centipedes are commonly referred to in cultural iconography.[21][22][23] In Maya culture, centipedes are deified and iconised in folklore and symbology.[21] Classic Maya script depicts a logogram of a skeletal head with two protruding hooked fangs, called Chapat.[21] The word chapat was commonly integrated into Mayan King's names, signifying importance and power.[21] Symbolically, the centipede was thought to represent a channel between the realms of the living and the undead.[21] This connection was likely made as centipedes often reside in dark, wet places like caves, which are considered to be liminal entrances to the underground realm by Mayan culture.[21] The centipede's activity during night, and subsequent burrowing during the day, marked a transition between the two boundaries.[21]
References
- ^ A. D. Barber (2012). Barber AD (ed.). "Geophilus flavus (De Geer, 1778)". World database of littoral Myriapoda. World Register of Marine Species. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
- ^ a b "Trophic interactions in centipedes (Chilopoda, Myriapoda) as indicated by fatty acid patterns: Variations with life stage, forest age and season". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 52: 33–42. 2012-09-01. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.04.018. ISSN 0038-0717.
- ^ a b c Lang, Birgit; Rall, Björn C.; Scheu, Stefan; Brose, Ulrich (2014). "Effects of environmental warming and drought on size-structured soil food webs". Oikos. 123 (10): 1224–1233. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2013.00894.x. ISSN 1600-0706.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Günther, Babett; Rall, Björn C.; Ferlian, Olga; Scheu, Stefan; Eitzinger, Bernhard (2014). "Variations in prey consumption of centipede predators in forest soils as indicated by molecular gut content analysis". Oikos. 123 (10): 1192–1198. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2013.00868.x. ISSN 1600-0706.
- ^ a b c Barber, Anthony (2011). "Geophilomorph centipedes and the littoral habitat". Terrestrial Arthropod Reviews. 4 (1): 17–39. doi:10.1163/187498311X546986. ISSN 1874-9828.
- ^ "Macro Photos - Chilopoda (centipedes) - Geophilus flavus". Insectmacros.com. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
- ^ "Tasmanian Multipedes: Geophilomorpha". Polydesmida.info. Archived from the original on 2012-10-01. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
- ^ a b c d e f Treatise on Zoology - Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Volume 1. Brill. 2011-03-21. doi:10.1163/9789004188266. ISBN 978-90-04-18826-6.
- ^ a b c "House Centipede (Family Scutigeridae)". Field Station. 2013-09-24. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
- ^ a b c "Soil Centipedes". Missouri Department of Conservation. Retrieved 2021-05-30.
- ^ a b c d Edgecombe, Gregory D.; Giribet, Gonzalo (January 2007). "Evolutionary Biology of Centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda)". Annual Review of Entomology. 52 (1): 151–170. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.52.110405.091326. ISSN 0066-4170.
- ^ a b c Bonato, Lucio; Lopresti, Massimo; Minelli, Alessandro; Cerretti, Pierfilippo (2014-09-29). "ChiloKey, an interactive identification tool for the geophilomorph centipedes of Europe (Chilopoda, Geophilomorpha)". ZooKeys. 443: 1–9. doi:10.3897/zookeys.443.7530. ISSN 1313-2970.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b Blackburn, James; Farrow, Malcolm; Arthur, Wallace (2006-02-28). "Factors influencing the distribution, abundance and diversity of geophilomorph and lithobiomorph centipedes: Distribution and abundance of centipedes". Journal of Zoology. 256 (2): 221–232. doi:10.1017/S0952836902000262.
- ^ a b Barber, AD (1988). Provisional Atlas of the Centipedes of the British Isles. London: The Lavenham Press. pp. 8–29. ISBN 1 870393 08 2.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Kamińska, K (2019). "Ultrastructure of the fat body in the soil centipedes Lithobius forficatus (Lithobiidae) and Geophilus flavus (Geophilidae) according to their seasonal rhythms". Zoologischer Anzeiger.
- ^ a b c Lang, Birgit; Rall, Björn C.; Scheu, Stefan; Brose, Ulrich (October 2014). "Effects of environmental warming and drought on size-structured soil food webs". Oikos. 123 (10): 1224–1233. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2013.00894.x.
- ^ a b c d e f g Ferlian, Olga; Scheu, Stefan; Pollierer, Melanie M. (2012-09-XX). "Trophic interactions in centipedes (Chilopoda, Myriapoda) as indicated by fatty acid patterns: Variations with life stage, forest age and season". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 52: 33–42. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.04.018. ISSN 0038-0717.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Minelli, Alessandro, ed. (2016-01-01). "Treatise on Zoology - Anatomy, Taxonomy, Biology. The Myriapoda, Volume 2". doi:10.1163/9789004188273.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde, Editors (1916-06-14). "Overzicht". Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde. 20 (2): 55–87. doi:10.1163/26660644-02002005. ISSN 0067-8546.
{{cite journal}}:|first=has generic name (help) - ^ a b Pick, Christian; Scherbaum, Samantha; Hegedüs, Elöd; Meyer, Andreas; Saur, Michael; Neumann, Ruben; Markl, Jürgen; Burmester, Thorsten (2014). "Structure, diversity and evolution of myriapod hemocyanins". FEBS Journal. 281 (7): 1818–1833. doi:10.1111/febs.12742.
- ^ a b c d e f g Ciura, Monika (2019-09-22). "The centipede in the Maya art and culture". Estudios Latinoamericanos. 38: 49–79. doi:10.36447/Estudios2018.v38.art3. ISSN 0137-3080.
- ^ Mageo, Jeannette Marie (1989). ""Ferocious is the Centipede": A Study of the Significance of Eating and Speaking in Samoa". Ethos. 17 (4): 387–427. ISSN 0091-2131.
- ^ Speck, Frank G. (1907). "Some Outlines of Aboriginal Culture in the Southeastern States". American Anthropologist. 9 (2): 287–295. ISSN 0002-7294.
