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==Post 1969==
==Post 1969==
The rise of pretendian identities post-1960s can be explained by a number of factors. The reestablishment and exercise of [[tribal sovereignty]] among tribal nations (following the era of [[Indian termination policy]]) meant that many individuals raised away from tribal communities sought to reestablish their status as tribal citizens. Other tribal citizens, who had been raised in [[American Indian boarding schools]] under [[genocidal]] policies designed to erase their cultural identity, also revived tribal religious and cultural practices. At the same time, in the years following the [[Occupation of Alcatraz]], the formation of [[Native American Studies]] as a distinct form of [[area studies]], and the awarding of the [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] to [[Kiowa]] author [[N Scott Momaday]], publishing programs and university departments began to be established specifically for or about Native American culture. At the same time, [[hippie]] and [[New Age]] cultures marketed Native cultures as accessible, spiritual, and as a form of resistance to mainstream culture, leading to the rise of the [[plastic shaman]]. All of this added up to a culture that was not inclined to disbelieve self-identification, and a wider societal impulse to claim Indigeneity.
The rise of pretendian identities post-1960s can be explained by a number of factors. The reestablishment and exercise of [[tribal sovereignty]] among tribal nations (following the era of [[Indian termination policy]]) meant that many individuals raised away from tribal communities sought, and still seek, to reestablish their status as tribal citizens. Other tribal citizens, who had been raised in [[American Indian boarding schools]] under [[genocidal]] policies designed to erase their cultural identity, also revived tribal religious and cultural practices. At the same time, in the years following the [[Occupation of Alcatraz]], the formation of [[Native American Studies]] as a distinct form of [[area studies]], and the awarding of the [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] to [[Kiowa]] author [[N Scott Momaday]], publishing programs and university departments began to be established specifically for or about Native American culture. At the same time, [[hippie]] and [[New Age]] cultures marketed Native cultures as accessible, spiritual, and as a form of resistance to mainstream culture, leading to the rise of the [[plastic shaman]]. All of this added up to a culture that was not inclined to disbelieve self-identification, and a wider societal impulse to claim Indigeneity.


[[Elizabeth Cook-Lynn]] wrote of the influence of pretendians in academia and political positions:
[[Elizabeth Cook-Lynn]] wrote of the influence of pretendians in academia and political positions:

Revision as of 05:03, 10 June 2021

Pretendian is a term used to describe people who, it is asserted, have falsely claimed to be citizens of Native American tribal nations, or to be descended from Native ancestors.[1][2] As a practice, it is a form of cultural appropriation.

History

Historian Philip Deloria has noted that European Americans "playing Indian" is a phenomenon that stretches back at least as far as the Boston Tea Party.[3] In his book Playing Indian, Deloria argues that white settlers have always played with stereotypical imagery of the peoples that were replaced during colonization, using these tropes to form a new national identity that can be seen as distinct from previous European identities. Patrick Wolfe goes further, arguing that settler colonialism actively needs to erase and then reproduce Indigenous identity in order to create and justify claims to land and territory.[4]

Examples of white societies who have played Indian include, according to Deloria, the Improved Order of Red Men, Tammany Hall, and scouting societies like the Order of the Arrow. Individuals who made careers out of pretending an Indigenous identity include James Beckwourth,[5] Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance[6] and Grey Owl.[7]

Joel W. Martin notes that "an astonishing number of southerners assert they have a grandmother or great-grandmother who was some kind of Cherokee, often a princess," and that such myths serve settler purposes in aligning American frontier romance with southern regionalism and pride.[8]

Post 1969

The rise of pretendian identities post-1960s can be explained by a number of factors. The reestablishment and exercise of tribal sovereignty among tribal nations (following the era of Indian termination policy) meant that many individuals raised away from tribal communities sought, and still seek, to reestablish their status as tribal citizens. Other tribal citizens, who had been raised in American Indian boarding schools under genocidal policies designed to erase their cultural identity, also revived tribal religious and cultural practices. At the same time, in the years following the Occupation of Alcatraz, the formation of Native American Studies as a distinct form of area studies, and the awarding of the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction to Kiowa author N Scott Momaday, publishing programs and university departments began to be established specifically for or about Native American culture. At the same time, hippie and New Age cultures marketed Native cultures as accessible, spiritual, and as a form of resistance to mainstream culture, leading to the rise of the plastic shaman. All of this added up to a culture that was not inclined to disbelieve self-identification, and a wider societal impulse to claim Indigeneity.

Elizabeth Cook-Lynn wrote of the influence of pretendians in academia and political positions:

[U]nscrupulous scholars in the discipline who had no stake in Native nationhood but who had achieved status in academia and held on to it through fraudulent claims to lndian Nation heritage and blood directed the discourse. This phenomenon took place following the "lndian Preference" regulations in new hiring practices at the Bureau of lndian Affairs in the early 1970s. Sometimes unprepared for such outright aggression or suffering polarization from the conflicts in the system, Native scholars in the academy often seemed to be silent witnesses to such occurrences. Their silence has not meant complicity. It has meant, more than anything, a feeling of utter powerlessness within the structures of strong mainstream institutions.[9]

Alleged Pretendians spreadsheet

Journalist Jacqueline Keeler has published a list of alleged pretendians, noting that "Everyone on this list monetizes their claims to tribal identity and/or speaks for American Indian Tribes on a national or international level."[10][11]

Notable examples

Individuals who have been accused in multiple sources of being a Pretendian include;

Academic

Film

Literary

Political

Visual arts

See also

Further reading

  • Laura Browder. Slippery Characters: Ethnic Impersonators and American Identities. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
  • Darryl Leroux. Distorted Descent: White Claims to Indigenous Identity. University of Manitoba Press, 2019.
  • Circe Sturm. Becoming Indian: The Struggle Over Cherokee Identity in the Twenty-First Century. Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research, 2010.

References

  1. ^ Maria Polleta. "'Pretendians': Elizabeth Warren not alone in making questionable claim to Native American heritage." The Republic,
  2. ^ Nigel Irwin, "Joseph Boyden’s Apology and the Strange History of ‘Pretendians.’" Vice 12 Jan 2017
  3. ^ Deloria, Philip J. (1999). Playing Indian. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 64–8, 91, 101, et al. ISBN 9780300080674. Retrieved February 28, 2019.
  4. ^ Patrick Wolfe (2006) Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native, Journal of Genocide Research, 8:4, 387-409, DOI: 10.1080/14623520601056240
  5. ^ Laura Browder, " 'One Hundred Percent American': How a Slave, a Janitor, and a Former Klansmen Escaped Racial Categories by Becoming Indians", in Beyond the Binary: Reconstructing Cultural Identity in a Multicultural Context, ed. Timothy B. Powell, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press (1999)
  6. ^ Melinda Micco, "Tribal Re-Creations: Buffalo Child Long Lance and Black Seminole Narratives", in Re-placing America: Conversations and Contestations, ed. Ruth Hsu, Cynthia Franklin, and Suzanne Kosanke, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i and the East-West Center, 2000
  7. ^ Donald B. Smith, From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl, (Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books, 1990)
  8. ^ Joel W. Martin. "′My Grandmother Was a Cherokee Princess′: Representations of Indians in Southern History." In Dressing in Feathers: The Construction of the Indian in Popular Culture, ed. Elizabeth Bird (London: Routledge 1996).
  9. ^ Elizabeth Cook-Lynn. "Who Stole Native American Studies?" Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 12, No. 1. (Spring, 1997), p. 23.
  10. ^ Jacqueline Keeler. "The Alleged Pretendians List"
  11. ^ [1] Kim Tallbear. "Playing Indian Constitutes a Structural Form of Colonial Theft, and It Must be Tackled." Kim Tallbear 10 May 2021
  12. ^ Richardson, Valerie. "Report on Conclusion of Preliminary Review in the Matter of Professor Ward Churchill". Archived 2012-06-29 at the Wayback Machine University of Colorado at Boulder. 2005 . Retrieved 26 July 2009.
  13. ^ Brown, Thomas. "Is Ward Churchill the New Michael Bellesiles?" George Mason University's History News Network. 14 March 2005 . Retrieved 26 July 2009.
  14. ^ Harjo, Suzan Shown. "Ward Churchill: The White Man's Burden", Indian Country Today. 3 August 2007 . Retrieved 26 July 2009.
  15. ^ [2] Tiffany Midge. "I Knew Rachel Dolezal Back When She Was Indigenous." Indian Country Today 17 Apr 2017
  16. ^ [3] Gyasi Ross. "The Native roots of the bizarre Rachel Dolezal drama." Indian Country Today 12 June 2017
  17. ^ Viren, Sarah. "The Native Scholar Who Wasn't". New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  18. ^ Shorter, David (July 1, 2015). "Four Words for Andrea Smith: 'I'm Not an Indian'". Indian Country Today Media. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
  19. ^ Allen, Samantha (July 11, 2015). "Tribes Blast 'Wannabe' Native American Professor". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 2015-07-11.
  20. ^ Russell, Steve (July 1, 2015). "Rachel Dolezal Outs Andrea Smith Again; Will Anybody Listen This Time?". Indian Country Today Media Network. Archived from the original on 2015-08-05. Retrieved 5 July 2015.
  21. ^ Various Authors (July 7, 2015). "Open Letter From Indigenous Women Scholars Regarding Discussions of Andrea Smith". Indian Country Today. Archived from the original on August 10, 2015. Retrieved 2019-10-09.
  22. ^ Angela Aleiss. "Disney Exploiting Confusion About Whether Depp Has Indian Blood." Indian Country Today 13 Sept 2018.https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/disney-exploiting-confusion-about-whether-depp-has-indian-blood
  23. ^ "Award-winning filmmaker Michelle Latimer's Indigenous identity under scrutiny - CBC News". CBC. December 17, 2020. Retrieved June 8, 2021.
  24. ^ "Michelle Latimer resigns from CBC's Trickster after addressing questions of Indigenous ancestry". The Globe and Mail. December 23, 2020. Retrieved June 8, 2021.
  25. ^ "Why I Question Joseph Boyden's Indigenous Ancestry".
  26. ^ "Author Joseph Boyden's shape-shifting Indigenous identity". APTN National News. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  27. ^ "Joseph Boyden must take responsibility for misrepresenting heritage, says Indigenous writer". Retrieved 20 January 2017.
  28. ^ Carter, Dan T. (October 4, 1991). "The Transformation of a Klansman". The New York Times.
  29. ^ Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (November 24, 1991). "'Authenticity', or the Lesson of Little Tree" (PDF). The New York Times Book Review.[permanent dead link‍]
  30. ^ Nagel, Joane (1997-09-25). American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512063-9.
  31. ^ Hoxie, Frederick E. Encyclopedia of North American Indians: Native American History, Culture, and Life From Paleo-Indians to the Present. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2006: 191-2. (retrieved through Google Books, 26 July 2009) ISBN 978-0-395-66921-1
  32. ^ Weaver, Jace (2001-11-01). Other Words: American Indian Literature, Law, and Culture. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3352-2.
  33. ^ Italie, Hillel, "Identity of Indian Memoirist is Disputed", Associated Press, ABCNews.Go.Com, January 25, 2006. Retrieved July 30, 2006.
  34. ^ Maul, Kimberly, "Agent Confirms Author Nasdijj and Gay-Erotica Writer Timothy Barrus Are Same Person", The Book Standard, January 27, 2006. Retrieved July 30, 2006.
  35. ^ Italie, Hillel (Jan 31, 2006). "Publisher stops issuing memoirs by disputed author". Times Daily. Retrieved 4 January 2020 – via Google News Archive.
  36. ^ Rich, M (2008-03-04). "Gang Memoir, Turning Page, Is Pure Fiction". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
  37. ^ "Memoir a fake, author says". Los Angeles Times. 2008-03-04.
  38. ^ Olmstead, Molly (February 6, 2019). "Report: Elizabeth Warren Identified as American Indian in Texas Bar Registration". Slate Magazine. Archived from the original on August 22, 2019. Retrieved August 22, 2019.
  39. ^ Linskey, Annie (February 5, 2019). "Elizabeth Warren apologizes for calling herself Native American". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 8, 2019. Retrieved February 9, 2019.
  40. ^ Tarlo, Shira (February 6, 2019). "Elizabeth Warren apologizes for identifying as Native American on Texas bar registration card". Salon. Archived from the original on February 8, 2019. Retrieved February 9, 2019.
  41. ^ Steve Russell, Editorial: "Rachel Dolezal Outs Andrea Smith Again; Will Anybody Listen This Time?", Indian Country Today Media Network, 1 July 2015, accessed 10 January 2016
  42. ^ Watts, Ph.D., Cara Cowan; et al. (26 June 2017). "Dear Unsuspecting Public, Jimmie Durham Is a Trickster - Jimmie Durham's indigenous identity has always been a fabrication and remains one". Indian Country Media Network. Archived from the original on 22 July 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2017. Durham is neither enrolled nor eligible for citizenship in any of the three federally-recognized and historical Cherokee Tribes: the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians of Oklahoma, and the Cherokee Nation.
  43. ^ "Should museums verify claims of Indigenous ancestry? Fruitlands show postponed over this 'profoundly divisive' issue". BostonGlobe.com. May 31, 2021. Retrieved June 8, 2021.
  44. ^ Agoyo, Acee (June 2, 2021). "Museum won't verify claims of tribal ancestry after artists withdraw from show". Indianz.Com. Retrieved June 8, 2021.
  45. ^ "Vancouver curator's Indigenous ancestry claims panned as 'pretendian'". Vancouver Sun. December 1, 1969. Retrieved June 8, 2021.
  46. ^ Fung, Amy (June 2, 2021). "Who Bears the Steep Costs of Ethnic Fraud?". Hyperallergic. Retrieved June 8, 2021.
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