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The '''rock dove''', '''rock pigeon''', or '''common pigeon''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|dʒ|.|ə|n}} also {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|dʒ|.|ɪ|n}}; ''Columba livia'') is a member of the [[bird]] family [[Columbidae]] (doves and pigeons).<ref name = "Gibbs">{{cite book| last =Gibbs | first =David |author2=Eustace Barnes |author3=John Cox | title =Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World | publisher =Pica Press | location =United Kingdom | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=r__Tx8QKQfMC | isbn =978-1-873403-60-0 | date =2010-06-30 }}</ref>{{rp|624}} In common usage, this bird is often simply referred to as the "'''pigeon'''".
The '''rock dove''', '''rock pigeon''', or '''common pigeon''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|dʒ|.|ə|n}} also {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|dʒ|.|ɪ|n}}; ''Columba livia'') is a member of the [[bird]] family [[Columbidae]] (doves and pigeons).<ref name = "Gibbs">{{cite book| last =Gibbs | first =David |author2=Eustace Barnes |author3=John Cox | title =Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World | publisher =Pica Press | location =United Kingdom | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=r__Tx8QKQfMC | isbn =978-1-873403-60-0 | date =2010-06-30 }}</ref>{{rp|624}} In common usage, this bird is often simply referred to as the "pigeon".


The [[domestic pigeon]] (''Columba livia domestica'', which includes about 1,000 different [[breed]]s) descended from this species. Escaped domestic pigeons have increased the populations of [[feral pigeon]]s around the world.<ref name = "Blechman">{{cite book| last =Blechman | first =Andrew | title =Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird. | publisher =University of Queensland Press | year =2007 | location =St Lucia, Queensland | url= http://andrewblechman.com/pigeons/learn_more.html |isbn =978-0-7022-3641-9 }}</ref>
The [[domestic pigeon]] (''Columba livia domestica'', which includes about 1,000 different [[breed]]s) descended from this species. Escaped domestic pigeons have increased the populations of [[feral pigeon]]s around the world.<ref name = "Blechman">{{cite book| last =Blechman | first =Andrew | title =Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird. | publisher =University of Queensland Press | year =2007 | location =St Lucia, Queensland | url= http://andrewblechman.com/pigeons/learn_more.html |isbn =978-0-7022-3641-9 }}</ref>

Revision as of 21:59, 16 June 2021

"Rock pigeon" redirects here. For other uses, see Rock pigeon (disambiguation).

Rock dove
Adult male in Germany
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Genus: Columba
Species:
C. livia
Binomial name
Columba livia
Gmelin, 1789[2]
  approximate native range
  introduced non-native populations

The rock dove, rock pigeon, or common pigeon (/ˈpɪdʒ.ən/ also /ˈpɪdʒ.ɪn/; Columba livia) is a member of the bird family Columbidae (doves and pigeons).[3]: 624  In common usage, this bird is often simply referred to as the "pigeon".

The domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica, which includes about 1,000 different breeds) descended from this species. Escaped domestic pigeons have increased the populations of feral pigeons around the world.[4]

Wild rock doves are pale grey with two black bars on each wing, whereas domestic and feral pigeons vary in colour and pattern. Few differences are seen between males and females.[5] The species is generally monogamous, with two squabs (young) per brood. Both parents care for the young for a time.[6]

Habitats include various open and semi-open environments. Cliffs and rock ledges are used for roosting and breeding in the wild. Originally found wild in Europe, North Africa, and western Asia, pigeons have become established in cities around the world. The species is abundant, with an estimated population of 17 to 28 million feral and wild birds in Europe alone and up to 120 million worldwide.[1][7]

Taxonomy and systematics

Columba livia in India

The rock dove was first described by German naturalist Johann Gmelin in 1789.[8] The genus name Columba is the Latin word meaning "pigeon, dove",[9] whose older etymology comes from the Ancient Greek κόλυμβος (kolumbos), "a diver", from κολυμβάω (kolumbao), "dive, plunge headlong, swim".[10] Aristophanes (Birds, 304) and others use the word κολυμβίς (kolumbis), "diver", for the name of the bird, because of its swimming motion in the air. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin livor, "bluish".[11] Its closest relative in the genus Columba is the hill pigeon, followed by the other rock pigeons: the snow, speckled, and white-collared pigeons.[3]

The official common name is rock dove, as given by the International Ornithological Congress.[12] Pigeon chicks are called squabs.[6]

The rock dove was central to Charles Darwin's discovery of evolution, and featured in four of his works from 1859 to 1872. Darwin posited that, despite wide-ranging morphological differences, the many hundreds of breeds of domestic pigeons could all be traced back to the wild rock dove; in essence human selection of pigeon breeds was analogous to natural selection.[13]

Subspecies

Twelve subspecies are recognised by Gibbs (2000); some of these may be derived from feral stock.[3]: 176–179 

  • The European rock dove (C. l. livia) – The nominate subspecies; it occurs in western and southern Europe, northern Africa, and Asia to western Kazakhstan, the northern Caucasus, Georgia, Cyprus, Turkey, Iran and Iraq.
  • The Cape Verde rock dove (C. l. atlantis) (Bannerman, 1931) – Found in Madeira, the Azores and Cape Verde, it is a very variable subspecies with chequered upperparts obscuring the black wingbars and is almost certainly derived from feral pigeons.
  • The Canary Islands rock dove (C. l. canariensis) (Bannerman, 1914) – Found in the Canary Islands, it is smaller and usually darker than the nominate subspecies.
  • The Senegal rock dove (C. l. gymnocyclus) (Gray, 1856) – Found from Senegal and Guinea to Ghana, Benin and Nigeria, it is smaller and very much darker than the nominate subspecies. It is almost blackish on the head, rump and underparts with a white back and the iridescence of the nape extending onto the head.
  • The Saharan rock dove (C. l. targia) (Geyr von Schweppenburg, 1916) – It breeds in the mountains of the Sahara east to Sudan. It is slightly smaller than the nominate subspecies, with similar plumage, but the back is concolorous with the mantle instead of white.
  • The oasis rock dove (C. l. dakhlae) (Richard Meinertzhagen, 1928) – Found only in two oases in central Egypt, it is smaller and much paler than the nominate subspecies.
  • The Egyptian rock dove (C. l. schimperi) (Bonaparte, 1854) – Found in the Nile Delta south to northern Sudan, it closely resembles C. l. targia, but has a distinctly paler mantle.
  • The Arabian rock dove (C. l. palaestinae) (Zedlitz, 1912) – Ranging from Syria to Sinai and Arabia, it is slightly larger than C. l. schimperi and has darker plumage.
  • The Iranian rock dove (C. l. gaddi) (Zarodney & Looudoni, 1906) – It breeds from Azerbaijan and Iran east to Uzbekistan. It is larger and paler than C. l. palaestinae, with which it intergrades in the west. It also intergrades with the next subspecies in the east.
  • Hume's rock dove (C. l. neglecta) (Hume, 1873) – Found in the mountains of eastern Central Asia, it is similar to the nominate subspecies in size but darker, with a stronger and more extensive iridescent sheen on the neck. It intergrades with the next subspecies in the south.
  • The Indian rock dove (C. l. intermedia) (Strickland, 1844) – Occurs in Sri Lanka and in India south of the Himalayan range of C. l. neglecta. It is similar to that subspecies but darker, with a less contrasting back.
  • The Mongolian rock dove (C. l. nigricans) (Buturlin, 1908) – Found in Mongolia and northern China, it is a variable subspecies and is probably derived from feral pigeons.

Description

A distinctive operculum is located on top of the beak.

The adult of the nominate subspecies of the rock dove is 29 to 37 cm (11 to 15 in) long with a 62 to 72 cm (24 to 28 in) wingspan.[14] Weight for wild or feral rock doves ranges from 238–380 g (8.4–13.4 oz), though overfed domestic and semidomestic individuals can exceed normal weights.[3][5] It has a dark bluish-grey head, neck, and chest with glossy yellowish, greenish, and reddish-purple iridescence along its neck and wing feathers. The iris is orange, red, or golden with a paler inner ring, and the bare skin round the eye is bluish-grey. The bill is grey-black with a conspicuous off-white cere, and the feet are purplish-red. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is typically around 22.3 cm (8.8 in), the tail is 9.5 to 11 cm (3.7 to 4.3 in), the bill is around 1.8 cm (0.71 in), and the tarsus is 2.6 to 3.5 cm (1.0 to 1.4 in).[3]

The adult female is almost identical in outward appearance to the male, but the iridescence on her neck is less intense and more restricted to the rear and sides, whereas that on the breast is often very obscure.[3]

The white lower back of the pure rock dove is its best identification characteristic; the two black bars on its pale grey wings are also distinctive. The tail has a black band on the end, and the outer web of the tail feathers are margined with white. It is strong and quick on the wing, dashing out from sea caves, flying low over the water, its lighter grey rump showing well from above.[15][self-published source?]

Young birds show little lustre and are duller. Eye colour of the pigeon is generally orange, but a few pigeons may have white-grey eyes. The eyelids are orange and encapsulated in a grey-white eye ring. The feet are red to pink.[6]

In flight
Group of doves
A pigeon in flight in slow motion, demonstrating the wing movements

When circling overhead, the white underwing of the bird becomes conspicuous. In its flight, behaviour, and voice, which is more of a dovecot coo than the phrase of the wood pigeon, it is a typical pigeon. Although it is a relatively strong flier, it also glides frequently, holding its wings in a very pronounced V shape as it does.[16] As prey birds, they must keep their vigilance, and when disturbed a pigeon within a flock will take off with a noisy clapping sound that cues for other pigeons to take to flight. The noise of the take-off increases the faster a pigeon beats its wings, thus advertising the magnitude of a perceived threat to its flockmates.[17]

Pigeons feed on the ground in flocks or individually. Pigeons are naturally granivorous, eating seeds that fit down their gullet. They may sometimes consume small invertebrates such as worms or insect larvae as a protein supplement. As they do not possess an enlarged cecum as in European wood pigeons, they cannot digest adult plant tissue; the various seeds they eat containing the appropriate nutrients they require.[18][19][20] While most birds take small sips and tilt their heads backwards when drinking, pigeons are able to dip their bills into the water and drink continuously, without having to tilt their heads back. In cities they typically resort to scavenging human garbage, as unprocessed grain may be impossible to find. Pigeon groups typically consist of producers, which locate and obtain food, and scroungers, which feed on food obtained by the producers. Generally, groups of pigeons contain a greater proportion of scroungers than producers.[21]

Pigeons, especially homing or carrier breeds, are well known for their ability to find their way home from long distances. Despite these demonstrated abilities, wild rock doves are sedentary and rarely leave their local areas. It is hypothesized that in their natural, arid habitat, they rely on this sense to navigate back home after foraging as deserts rarely possess navigational landmarks that may be used.[5]

A rock pigeon's lifespan ranges from 3–5 years in the wild to 15 years in captivity, though longer-lived specimens have been reported.[22] The main causes of mortality in the wild are predators and persecution by humans.[citation needed] The species was first introduced to North America in 1606 at Port Royal, Nova Scotia.[15]

Osmoregulation

Main article: Osmoregulation in rock doves

Distribution and habitat

Rock doves perched on sea cliffs in Norfolk, England

The rock dove has a restricted natural resident range in western and southern Europe, North Africa, and extending into South Asia. It is often found in pairs in the breeding season, but is usually gregarious.[3] The species (including ferals) has a large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi). It has a large global population, including an estimated 17 to 28 million individuals in Europe.[1] Fossil evidence suggests the rock dove originated in southern Asia, and skeletal remains, unearthed in Israel, confirm its existence there for at least three-hundred thousand years.[4] However, this species has such a long history with humans that it is impossible to identify its original range exactly.[5]

Pigeons in the wild reside in rock formations, settling in crevices to nest. They nest communally, often forming large colonies of many hundreds of individuals.[19] Feral pigeons are usually unable to find these accommodations, so they must nest on building ledges, walls or statues. They may damage these structures via their feces; starving birds can only excrete urates, which over time corrodes masonry and metal. In contrast, a well-fed bird passes mostly solid feces, containing only small amounts of uric acid.

Behavior and ecology

Breeding

Two squabs a few days old
A pigeon incubating its eggs
Courtship display

The rock dove breeds at any time of the year, but peak times are spring and summer. Nesting sites are along coastal cliff faces, as well as the artificial cliff faces created by apartment buildings with accessible ledges or roof spaces.[23]

The nest is a flimsy platform of straw and sticks, laid on a ledge, under cover, often on the window ledges of buildings.[5] Two white eggs are laid; incubation, shared by both parents, lasts 17 to 19 days.[6] The newly hatched squab (nestling) has pale yellow down and a flesh-coloured bill with a dark band. For the first few days, the baby squabs are tended and fed (through regurgitation) exclusively on "crop milk" (also called "pigeon milk" or "pigeon's milk"). The pigeon milk is produced in the crops of both parents in all species of pigeons and doves. The fledging period is about 30 days.[14]

Feeding

Rock doves are omnivorous, but prefer plant matter: chiefly fruits and grains.[24]

Preening

Pigeons primarily use powder down feathers for preening, which gives a soft and silky feel to their plumage. They have no preen gland or at times have very rudimentary preen glands, so oil is not used for preening. Rather, powder down feathers are spread across the body. These have a tendency to disintegrate, and the powder, akin to talcum powder, helps maintain the plumage.[25] Some varieties of domestic pigeons have modified feathers called "fat quills". These feathers contain yellow, oil-like fat that derives from the same cells as powder down. This is used while preening and helps reduce bacterial degradation of feathers by feather bacilli.[26]

Survival

Predators

With only their flying abilities protecting them from predation, rock pigeons are a favourite almost around the world for a wide range of raptors. In fact, with feral pigeons existing in almost every city in the world, they may form the majority of prey for several raptor species that live in urban areas. Peregrine falcons and Eurasian sparrowhawks are natural predators of pigeons that are quite adept at catching and feeding upon this species. Up to 80% of the diet of peregrine falcons in several cities that have breeding falcons is composed of feral pigeons.[27] Some common predators of feral pigeons in North America are opossums, raccoons, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, eastern screech owls, and accipiters. The birds that prey on pigeons in North America can range in size from American kestrels to golden eagles[28] and can even include gulls, crows, and ravens.[citation needed] On the ground, the adults, their young, and their eggs are at risk from feral and domestic cats.[6] Doves and pigeons are considered to be game birds, as many species have been hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.[29]

The body feathers have dense, fluffy bases and are loosely attached to the skin, hence they drop out easily. When a predator catches it, large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth, and the pigeon may use this temporary distraction to make an escape.[25] It also tends to drop the tail feathers when preyed upon or under traumatic conditions, probably as a distraction mechanism.[30]

Parasites

Tinaminyssus melloi, a nasal mite. Pigeon louse fly (Pseudolynchia canariensis), a blood-sucking ectoparasite.

Pigeons may harbour a diverse parasite fauna.[31] They often host the intestinal helminths Capillaria columbae and Ascaridia columbae. Their ectoparasites include the ischnoceran lice Columbicola columbae, Campanulotes bidentatus compar, the amblyceran lice Bonomiella columbae, Hohorstiella lata, Colpocephalum turbinatum, the mites Tinaminyssus melloi, Dermanyssus gallinae, Dermoglyphus columbae, Falculifer rostratus, and Diplaegidia columbae. The hippoboscid fly Pseudolynchia canariensis is a typical blood-sucking ectoparasite of pigeons, found only in tropical and subtropical regions.

Relationship to humans

Domestication

Domestic pigeons
Main article: Domestic pigeon

Rock doves have been domesticated for several thousand years, giving rise to the domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica).[6] They may have been domesticated as many as 5,000 years ago.[32] Numerous breeds of fancy pigeons of all sizes, colours, and types have been bred.[33] Domesticated pigeons are used as homing pigeons as well as food and pets. They were in the past also used as carrier pigeons, and so-called war pigeons have played significant roles during wartime, including delivering urgent medicines, with many pigeons having received bravery awards and medals for their services in saving hundreds of human lives, including, notably, the British pigeon Cher Ami, which received the Croix de Guerre for actions during World War I, and the Irish Paddy and the American G.I. Joe, which both received the Dickin Medal, amongst 32 pigeons to receive this award, for their actions during World War II, more than any other species of animal [6]

Medical uses

Pigeons have notably been "employed" as medical imaging data sorters, and have been successfully trained under research conditions to examine data on a screen for the purposes of detecting potentially dangerous abnormalities with good repeatability using far less training than a human operator. In this case it appears to use their innate visual navigation skills. [34]

Feral pigeon

Main article: Feral pigeon
Feral pigeon at Nanjing, China

Many domestic birds have got lost, escaped or been released over the years, and have given rise to feral pigeons. These show a variety of plumages, although many have the blue-barred pattern as does the pure rock dove. Feral pigeons are found in cities and towns all over the world.[35] The scarcity of the pure wild species is partly due to interbreeding with feral birds.[16]

Human health

Contact with pigeon droppings poses a minor risk of contracting histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and psittacosis,[36] and long-term exposure to both droppings and feathers can induce an allergy known as bird fancier's lung. Pigeons are not a major concern in the spread of West Nile virus; though they can contract it, they apparently do not transmit it.[37] Pigeons are, however, at potential risk for carrying and spreading avian influenza. One study has shown that adult pigeons are not clinically susceptible to the most dangerous strain of avian influenza, H5N1, and that they did not transmit the virus to chickens.[38] Other studies have presented evidence of clinical signs and neurological lesions resulting from infection, but found that the pigeons did not transmit the disease to chickens reared in direct contact with them.[39][40] Pigeons were found to be "resistant or minimally susceptible" to other strains of avian influenza, such as the H7N7.[41]

Stages of lifecycle

  • Columba livia - MHNT
    Columba livia - MHNT
  • Egg, measured in centimetres
    Egg, measured in centimetres
  • Nest with two eggs
    Nest with two eggs
  • Nestlings, one day
    Nestlings, one day
  • Nestling, five days
    Nestling, five days
  • Nestlings, about 10 days
    Nestlings, about 10 days
  • Young bird, 22 days
    Young bird, 22 days
  • Feral pigeons in courtship
    Feral pigeons in courtship
  • Rock dove 18 days old in its nest and one egg
    Rock dove 18 days old in its nest and one egg

References

  1. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2016). "Columba livia". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016. IUCN: e.T22690066A86070297. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22690066A86070297.en.
  2. ^ "Columba livia". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2008-02-23.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Gibbs, David; Eustace Barnes; John Cox (2010-06-30). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. United Kingdom: Pica Press. ISBN 978-1-873403-60-0.
  4. ^ a b Blechman, Andrew (2007). Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird. St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press. ISBN 978-0-7022-3641-9.
  5. ^ a b c d e "Rock Pigeon". All About Birds. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Levi, Wendell (1977). The Pigeon. Sumter, S.C.: Levi Publishing Co, Inc. ISBN 0-85390-013-2.
  7. ^ "Rock Pigeon Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 2019-12-24.
  8. ^ In J.F. Gmelin's edition of Linné's Systema Naturae appeared in Leipzig, 1788-93.
  9. ^ James A. Jobling. Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. Bloomsbury Publishing p. 114 ISBN 1408125013
  10. ^ Liddell, Henry George & Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged ed.). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
  11. ^ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
  12. ^ Gill, F., ed. (2020). "IOC World Bird List v10.2". International Ornithological Committee. doi:10.14344/ioc.ml.10.2. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  13. ^ Baptista, L. (2009). "Darwin's pigeons and the evolution of the columbiforms: recapitulation of ancient genes" (PDF). Acta Zoológica Mexicana (Nueva Serie). 25 (3): 719–741.
  14. ^ a b Jahan, Shah. "Feral Pigeon". The Birds I Saw. Archived from the original on June 29, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
  15. ^ a b White, Helen. "Rock Pigeons". www.diamonddove.info. Helen White. Retrieved 2008-02-18.[self-published source?]
  16. ^ a b Wright, Mike. "Wildlife Profiles: Pigeon". Arkansas Urban Wildlife. Archived from the original on 2008-06-10. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
  17. ^ Davis, J.Michael (1975). "Socially induced flight reactions in pigeons". Animal Behaviour. 23: 597–601. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(75)90136-0. S2CID 53171567.
  18. ^ Murton, R.K.; Westwood, N.J. (1966). "The foods of the Rock Dove and Feral Pigeon". Bird Study. 13 (2): 130–146. doi:10.1080/00063656609476116.
  19. ^ a b https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/rock-pigeon
  20. ^ https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v107n01/p0093-p0121.pdf
  21. ^ Dugatkin, Lee Alan (2014). Principles of Animal Behavior (3rd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton Company. pp. 373–376. ISBN 9780393920451.
  22. ^ "Columba livia (domest.)". BBC Science & Nature. Retrieved 2008-02-19.
  23. ^ "Columba livia". Australian Museum Online. Archived from the original on February 13, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
  24. ^ Lowther, P.; Johnston, R. (2020). Billerman, S. (ed.). "Rock pigeon (Columba livia), version 1.0". birdsoftheworld.org. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bow.rocpig.01. Retrieved August 6, 2020.
  25. ^ a b "Columbiformes (Pigeons, Doves, and Dodos)". Encyclopedia.com. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  26. ^ Peters, Anne; Klonczinski, Eva; Delhey, Kaspar (March 2010). "Fat quill secretion in pigeons: Could it function as a cosmetic?". Animal Biology. 60: 69–78. doi:10.1163/157075610X12610595764219.
  27. ^ White, Clayton M.; Nancy J. Clum; Tom J. Cade & W. Grainger Hunt. "Peregrine Falcon". Birds of North America Online. Retrieved 2011-08-30.
  28. ^ Roof, Jennifer (2001). "Columba livia common pigeon". Animal Diversity Web University of Michigan. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
  29. ^ Butler, Krissy Anne. "Keeping & Breeding Doves & Pigeons". Game Bird Gazette Magazine. Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. Retrieved 2008-02-23.
  30. ^ Naish, Darren. "The detachable tails of pigeons". Scienceblogs.com. 2006-2017 ScienceBlogs LLC. Retrieved 18 September 2008.
  31. ^ Rózsa L (1990). "The ectoparasite fauna of feral pigeon populations in Hungary" (PDF). Parasitologia Hungarica. 23: 115–119.
  32. ^ Johnston, Richard F. (1992-07-01). "Evolution in the Rock Dove: Skeletal Morphology". The Auk. 109 (3): 530–542. doi:10.1093/auk/109.3.530 (inactive 31 May 2021). ISSN 0004-8038.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2021 (link)
  33. ^ McClary, Douglas (1999). Pigeons for Everyone. Great Britain: Winckley Press. ISBN 0-907769-28-4.
  34. ^ Levenson, Richard M.; Krupinski, Elizabeth A.; Navarro, Victor M.; Wasserman, Edward A. (2015). "Pigeons (Columba livia) as Trainable Observers of Pathology and Radiology Breast Cancer Images". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141357. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041357L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141357. PMC 4651348. PMID 26581091.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  35. ^ "Why study pigeons? To understand why there are so many colors of feral pigeons". Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Archived from the original on June 12, 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
  36. ^ "Facts about pigeon-related diseases". The New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Archived from the original on March 4, 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-05.
  37. ^ Chalmers, Dr Gordon A. "West Nile Virus and Pigeons". Panorama lofts. Archived from the original on October 26, 2009. Retrieved 2008-02-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  38. ^ Liu Y, Zhou J, Yang H, et al. (2007). "Susceptibility and transmissibility of pigeons to Asian lineage highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H5N1". Avian Pathol. 36 (6): 461–5. doi:10.1080/03079450701639335. PMID 17994324. S2CID 13181639.
  39. ^ Klopfleisch R, Werner O, Mundt E, Harder T, Teifke JP (2006). "Neurotropism of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/chicken/Indonesia/2003 (H5N1) in experimentally infected pigeons (Columbia livia f. domestica)". Vet. Pathol. 43 (4): 463–70. doi:10.1354/vp.43-4-463. PMID 16846988.
  40. ^ Werner O, Starick E, Teifke J, et al. (2007). "Minute excretion of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/chicken/Indonesia/2003 (H5N1) from experimentally infected domestic pigeons (Columbia livia) and lack of transmission to sentinel chickens". J. Gen. Virol. 88 (Pt 11): 3089–93. doi:10.1099/vir.0.83105-0. PMID 17947534.
  41. ^ Panigrahy B, Senne DA, Pedersen JC, Shafer AL, Pearson JE (1996). "Susceptibility of pigeons to avian influenza". Avian Dis. 40 (3): 600–4. doi:10.2307/1592270. JSTOR 1592270. PMID 8883790.
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