Hernán Cortés

Hernán Cortés

Hernán(do) Cortés, Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca (1485–December 2, 1547) was the conquistador who became famous for leading the military expedition that initiated the Spanish Conquest of Mexico. Cortés was part of the generation of European colonizers that began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Born in Medellin, Extremadura, in Castile, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés as a young man chose to win a livelihood in the New World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an encomienda and for a period became mayor of a small town. In 1519 he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly funded. His enmity with the governor of Cuba Diego Velázquez resulted in the latter calling back the expedition in the last moment, an order which was ignored by Cortés in an act of disobedience. Arriving on the continent Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous peoples against others. He also successfully used a native woman, Doña Marina, as interpreter. Later, she would bear Cortés a son. When the Governor of Cuba sent missaries to arrest Cortés he fought them and won and used the extra troops as reinforcements. Instead he wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished for mutiny. When the Aztec empire was overthrown Cortés was awarded the title of Marques del Valle de Oaxaca, while the more prestigious titles of Viceroy was given to relatives of the king. Cortés returned to Spain where he died peacefully but embittered.

Due to the controversial undertakings of Cortés and the scarcity of reliable sources of information about him it has become difficult to assert anything definitive about his personality and motivations. Early heroification of the conquistadors did not encourage deep examination of Cortés. Later reconsideration of the conquistadors' character in the context of modern anti-colonial sentiment and greatly expanded concern for human rights, as typified by the Black Legend, also did little to expand our understanding of Cortés as an individual. As a result of these historical trends, descriptions of Cortés tend to be simplistic, and either black or rosy coloured.

The sources regarding the life of Cortés

There are relatively few sources to the early life of Cortés, his fame arose from his participation in the conquest of Mexico and it was only after this that people became interested in reading and writing about him. Probably the best source is his letters to the king which he wrote during the campaign in Mexico, but they are written with the specific purpose of putting his efforts in a favourable light and so must be read critically. Another main source is the biography written by Cortés' private chaplain Lopez de Gómara, which was written in Spain several years after the conquest. Gómara never set foot in the Americas and knew only what Cortés had told him, and he had an affinity for knightly romantic stories which he incorporated richly in the biography. The third major source is written as a reaction to what its author calls "the lies of Gomara", the account written by the Conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo does not paint Cortés as a romantic hero but rather tries to emphasize that also Cortés' men should be remembered as important participants in the undertakings in Mexico. In the years following the conquest also more critical accounts of the Spanish arrival in Mexico were written. The Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas wrote his A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies in which he raised strong accusations of brutality, and heinous violence towards the Indians against the conquistadors in general and Cortés in particular. The accounts of the conquest given in the Florentine Codex by the Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and his native informants are also less than flattering towards Cortés. The result of the scarce sources to the life of Cortés has been sharp divisions in the description of Cortés' personality and a tendency to describe him as either a vicious and ruthless person or a noble and honorable cavalier.

Early life

Cortés was born in Medellín, in the province of Extremadura, in the Kingdom of Castile in Spain in 1485. His father, Martín Cortés de Monroy,an infantry captain of distinguished ancestry but slender means. His mother was Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, Hernan was second cousin to Francisco Pizarro, who later conquered the Inca empire of modern-day Peru (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined Cortés to conquer the Aztecs).

Hernan Cortés is described as a sickly child by his biographer, chaplain, and friend Francisco López de Gómara. At the age of fourteen, Cortés was sent to study at the University of Salamanca. This was the great center of learning of the country and while accounts vary as to the nature of Cortés' studies, his later writings and actions suggest he studied Law and probably Latin.

After two years, Cortés, tired of schooling, returned home to Medellín, much to the annoyance of his parents, who had hoped to see him equipped for a profitable legal career. However, those two years at Salamanca, plus his long period of training and experience as a notary, first in Seville and later in Hispaniola, would give him a close acquaintance with the legal codes of Castile that was to stand him in good stead in justifying his unauthorized conquest of Mexico.

At this point in his life, Cortés was described by Gómara as restless, haughty, and mischievous. This was probably a fair description of a sixteen-year-old boy who had returned home only to find himself frustrated by life in his small provincial town.

By this time, news of the exciting discoveries of Columbus in the New World was streaming back to Spain. Cortés and his family must have been well aware of the potential it might hold for a young adventurous man.

Preparing to depart for the New World

Contemporary painting of the Spanish Conquistador.

Plans were made in 1502 for Cortes to sail to the Americas with a family acquaintance, Nicolas de Ovando, the newly appointed governor of Hispaniola, but an injury sustained while hurriedly escaping from the bedroom of a married woman of Medellín prevented him from making the journey. Instead, he spent the next year wandering the country, probably spending most of his time in the heady atmosphere of Spain's southern ports, listening to the tales of those returning from the Indies, who told of discovery and conquest, gold, Indians and strange unknown lands.

Arrival in the New World

Cortés did not arrive in the New World until 1503. He finally succeeded in reaching Hispaniola in a ship commanded by Alonso Quintero, who tried to deceive his superiors and reach the New World before them in order to secure personal advantages. Quintero's mutinous conduct may have served as a model for Cortés in his subsequent career. The history of the conquistadors is rife with accounts of rivalry, jockeying for position, mutiny, and betrayal. [4]

In 1989 at the age of eighteen, Cortés sailed in a convoy of merchant ships bound for Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola. Upon his arrival, he registered as a citizen, which entitled him to a building plot and land for cultivation. Soon afterwards, Ovando, still the governor, gave him a repartimiento of Indians and made him a notary of the town of Azuza. His next five years seem to have served to establish him in the colony, though he managed to contract syphilis from Indian women in the area, a disease which until that time had been unknown in the New World but which brought great havoc in the Americas after its introduction by the Spaniards. In 1506 he took part in the conquest of Hispaniola and Cuba and got a large estate of land and Indian slaves for his effort.

Cortés in Cuba

In 1511, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, an aide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquer Cuba. At the age of 26, Cortés was made clerk to the treasurer with the responsibility of insuring that the Crown received the quinto, or customary one-fifth of the profits from the expedition.

The governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, was so impressed with Cortés that he secured a high political position for him in the colony. Cortés continued to build a reputation as a daring and bold leader. He became secretary for Governor Velázquez. Cortes was appointed mayor (alcalde) of Santiago. In Cuba, Cortés became a man of substance with a repartimiento of Indians, mines and cattle. In 1514, Cortés led a group that wanted more natives for the settlers.

As time went on, relations between Cortés and governor Velázquez became, to put it mildly, strained. The governor twice jailed the young cavalier although each time Cortés managed to escape.

Cortés also found time to become romantically involved with Catalina Xuárez (or Juárez), the sister-in-law of Governor Velázquez. Part of Velázquez' displeasure seems to have been based on a belief that Cortés was trifling with Catalina's affections. Cortés was temporarily distracted by one of Catalina's sisters but finally married Catalina reluctantly under pressure from Governor Velázquez. However, by doing so, he hoped to secure the good will of both her family and that of Velázquez.

Looking Beyond Cuba

It was not until he had been almost 15 years in the Indies, that Cortés began to look beyond his substantial status as mayor of the capital of Cuba and as a man of affairs in the thriving colony.

The Invasion of Mexico

Main article: Spanish conquest of Mexico

The most notable achievement of Cortés' career was the invasion of Mexico and conquest of the Aztec empire. In 1518 Velázquez put him in command of an expedition to explore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization. At the last minute, due to the old gripe between Velázquez and Cortés, he changed his mind and revoked his charter. Cortés ignored the orders and went ahead any way in an act of open mutiny.

On the way to Tenochtitlan, Cortés made alliances with native American polities such as the Nahuas of Tlaxcala and the Totonacs of Cempoala. By the time he arrived in Tenochtitlan the Spaniards had a large army. At first, the Aztecs received Cortés forces peacefully in Tenochtitlán where they stayed as guests at the palace of Moctezuma II. Moctezuma believed Hernan Cortez was a god. The balance turned and Moctezuma became a prisoner in his own house while the Spaniards began surveying his empire. Moctezuma became a prisoner because he gave lavish gifts as in gold to the Spaniards which enticed them to plunder vast amounts of gold. When the Aztecs perceived the weakened state of their ruler they staged a rebellion in order to kick out the Spaniards and their native American allies from the city. In the Noche Triste the intruders were forced to flee over the causeway to the mainland and back to Tlaxcala. On the way they suffered great losses. But the Spaniards and their allies prevailed: with reinforcments arriving from Cuba, Cortés began a policy of attrition towards the island city of Tenochtitlan cutting of supplies and subduing the Aztecs allied cities thus changing the balance. The decisive battle in this campaign was the siege of Tenochtitlan. Cortés' victory over the Aztecs at Tenochtitlan enabled the eventual Spanish conquest of Mexico.

There is much speculation around events dealing with the national treasure of the Aztec empire, much of which was taken as booty by Cortes. We do know with relative certainty that some of this treasure was lost during the panicked escape of the Spaniards from Tenochtitlan during La Noche Triste.

Appointment to governorship of Mexico

Because of his conquests and all the gold and jewels he had collected, Cortés was very popular back home in Spain. King Charles I of Spain, who had become Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1519, appointed Cortés governor and captain general of the newly conquered territory. Cortés received the title Marques del Valle de Oaxaca (Marquis of the Oaxaca Valley) in 1528.

Cortés served a term as Governor-General of "New Spain of the Ocean Sea" (as Juan de Grijalva had named Mexico before Cortés ever saw it), bringing stability and surprising civil rights to the country.

Cortés initiates the construction of Mexico City

Cortés and his troops undertook the destruction of the Aztec temples and buildings. Eventually the Spaniards began construction of their own buildings in what is now Mexico City on the Aztec ruins. The Spanish kings eventually sent many Spaniards over to Mexico. The Spaniards renamed it the New Spain and appointed a Viceroy to rule the newly conquered Spanish territories. They also sent Catholic priests to begin converting the Aztecs and other tribes to Catholicism and to teach them Spanish. Mexico City soon became the most important European city in the Americas. He managed the founding of new cities and appointed men to extend Spanish rule to all of Mexico or New Spain. Cortés also supported efforts to convert the indigenous people to Christianity and sponsored new explorations.

Cortés the farmer

Cortés spent the next seven years establishing peace among the Indians of Mexico and developing mines and farmlands.

Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow sugar in Mexico and one of the first to import African slaves to early colonial Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200 slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent.

Death of Cuauhtémoc

The execution of Cuauhtémoc on the journey to Honduras was another instance of the misconception by Cortés of aboriginal conditions. It is not at all unlikely that the Mexican chieftain was party to a plan to exterminate the Spaniards while they were floundering through the forests and swamps. Cortés had Cuauhtémoc hanged over the strong objections of his men. Another account by Bernal Diaz del Castillo tells us that other Spaniards supported him on his decision to execute Cuauhtémoc. The execution eventually had to be carried out by Tlaxcallan soldiers.

Sworn testimony at Cortés' many subsequent trials (for murdering his legal wife, etc.) has abundant testimony from friends and enemies alike that this crime ruined Cortés. He never forgave himself and seems to have gone somewhat mad. In the end he was said to have remarked, "I didn't want it this way."

Deteriorating relations with the Spanish government

Many historical sources have conveyed an impression that Cortés was unjustly treated by the Spanish Crown, and that he received nothing but ingratitude for his role in establishing New Spain. This picture is the one Cortés presents in his letters and in the later biography written by Gomara. However, there may be more to the picture than this. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Cortés' own greed and vanity may have played a part in his deteriorating position with the King

"Cortés personally was not ungenerously rewarded, but he speedily complained of insufficient compensation to himself and his comrades. Thinking himself beyond reach of restraint, he disobeyed many of the orders of the Crown, and, what was more imprudent, said so in a letter to the emperor, dated 15 October, 1524 (Ycazbalceta, "Documentos para la Historia de México", Mexico, 1858, I). In this letter Cortés, besides recalling in a rather abrupt manner that the conquest of Mexico was due to him alone, deliberately acknowledges his disobedience in terms which could not fail to create a most unfavourable impression."

In 1522, the Crown appointed Cortés governor of New Spain, but also, much to the dismay of Cortés, four royal officials were appointed at the same time to assist him in his governing — in effect submitting him to close observation and administration. In 1523, the Crown (possibly influenced by Cortés' enemy, Bishop Fonseca), sent a military force under the command of Juan de Garay to conquer and settle the northern part of Mexico, the region of Pánuco. This was another setback for Cortés who mentions this in his fourth letter to the King in which he describes himself as the victim of a conspiracy by his archenemies Diego Velázquez, Diego Columbus and Bishop Fonseca as well as Juan Garay. The influence of Garay was effectively stopped by this appeal to the King who sent out a decree forbidding Garay to interfere in the politics of New Spain, causing him to give up without a fight.

Cortés suspected of conspiring to secede from Spain

In 1524, the treachery in Honduras of Cristobal de Olid, an old supporter of Diego Velázquez, sent Cortés into a rage and he issued a decree to arrest Velázquez, the Governor of Cuba, whom Cortés was sure was behind Olid's treason. This excessive action, however, served to further estrange the Spanish government which was already beginning to feel anxious about Cortés rising power. In response, the government sent a special Juez de residencia, Luis Ponce de León, to conduct a full inquiry into Cortés activities. A few days after Cortés returned from the expedition to Honduras, where Cortés defeated de Olid, Ponce de Leon suspended Cortés from his office of governor of New Spain. Cortés went to Spain in 1528 where he was awarded the title "Marques del Valle de Oaxaca" and was confirmed in his land holdings and vassals, but he was not reinstated as governor and was never again given any important office in the administration of New Spain.

Cortés accused of murdering his first wife

At a time when there was a strong suspicion in court circles of an intended rebellion by Cortés, a charge was brought against him that cast a fatal blight upon his character and plans. He was accused of murdering his first wife. The proceedings of the investigation were kept secret. No report, either exonerating or condemning Cortés, was published. Had the Government declared him innocent, it would have greatly increased his popularity; had it declared him a criminal, a crisis would have been precipitated by the accused and his party. Silence was the only safe policy, but that silence is suggestive that grave danger was feared from his influence.

Emperor Charles V with Hound (1532), a painting by the 16th century artist Jakob Seisenegger.

Cortés appeals to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor

Cortés was once quoted as saying that it was "more difficult to contend against (his) own countrymen than against the Aztecs." Governor Diego Velázquez continued to be a thorn in his side, teaming up with Bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca, chief of the Spanish colonial department, to undermine him at court.

Cortés's fifth letter to Charles V attempts to justify his conduct and concludes with a bitter attack on “various and powerful rivals and enemies” who have “obscured the eyes of your Majesty.” Unfortunately, he was not dealing simply with a king of Spain, but with an emperor who ruled most of Europe and who had little time for distant colonies, except insofar as they contributed to his treasury.

In 1521, year of the Conquest, Charles V was attending to matters in his German domains and Spain was ruled by Bishop (later Pope) Adrian of Utrecht, who functioned as regent. Velázquez and Fonseca persuaded the regent to appoint a commissioner with powers to investigate Cortés's conduct and even arrest him.

The Spanish bureaucrats sent out a commission of inquiry under Licentiate Luis Ponce de León. Ponce de León arrived to conduct a residencia of Cortes but fell ill and died shortly after his arrival. Before he died, he appointed Marcos de Aguilar as alcalde mayor. The aged Aguilar also became sick and appointed Alonso de Estrada governor.

Cortés, suspected of poisoning them, refrained from taking over the government. Estrada sent Diego de Figueroa to the south; but de Figueroa raided graveyards and extorted contributions, meeting his end when the ship carrying these treasures sunk.

In August 1527 a royal decree arrived confirming Estrada as governor. Albornoz persuaded him to release Salazar and Chirinos. When Cortes complained angrily after one of his adherent's hand was cut off, Estrada ordered him exiled. Cortes sailed for Spain in 1528 to appeal to Emperor Charles V.

First return to Spain

In 1528, Cortes returned to Spain to appeal to the justice of his master, Charles V. He presented himself with great splendor before the court. By this time Charles V had returned and Cortés forthrightly responded to his enemy's charges. Denying he had held back on gold due the crown, he showed that he had contributed more than the quinto (one-fifth) required. Had he spent lavishly to rebuíld Tenochtitlán, damaged during the siege that brought down the Aztec empire? Of course he had, and the rebuilt Tenochtitlán was now more magnificent than any city in Europe, a true jewel in the Spanish crown.

He was received by Charles with every distinction, and decorated with the order of Santiago. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded by being named the Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, a noble title and senorial estate which was passed down to his descendents until 1811.

Mismanagement of Cortés's property during his absence

Cortés's property was mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators while he was in Spain. Cortés sided with local Indians in a lawsuit. The Indians documented the abuses in the Huexotzinco Codex.

Return to Mexico

Cortés returned to Mexico in 1530 with new titles and honors, but with diminished power, a viceroy having been entrusted with the administration of civil affairs, although Cortés still retained military authority, with permission to continue his conquests. This division of power led to continual dissension, and caused the failure of several enterprises in which Cortés was engaged.

On returning to Mexico, Cortés found the country in a state of anarchy. Furthermore, there were so many accusations made against him—even that he had murdered his first wife, Catalina, who had died that year—that, after reasserting his position and reestablishing some sort of order, he retired to his estates at Cuernavaca, about 30 miles (48 km) south of Mexico City. There he concentrated on the building of his palace and on Pacific exploration.

Remaining in Mexico between 1530 and 1541, Cortés quarreled with the greedy, brutal Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán and disputed the right to explore the territory that is today California with Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy. [5]

Exploration of Baja California

In 1536, Cortés explored the northwestern part of Mexico and discovered the Baja California peninsula. Cortés also spent time exploring the Pacific coast of Mexico. The gulf that separates the Baja California peninsula from Mexico is named the Sea of Cortes. This was the last major expedition by Cortés.

Later life and death

Second return to Spain

After his exploration of Baja California, Cortés returned to Spain in 1541, hoping to confound his enemies. On his return he was utterly neglected, and could scarcely obtain an audience.

On one occasion he forced his way through a crowd that surrounded the emperor's carriage, and mounted on the footstep. The emperor, astounded at such audacity, demanded of him who he was. "I am a man," replied Cortés proudly, "who has given you more provinces than your ancestors left you cities."

Expedition against Algiers

The emperor finally permitted Cortés to join himself and his fleet commanded by Andrea Doria at the great expedition against Algiers in 1541, which was then part of the Ottoman Empire and was used as a base by the notorious Turkish corsair Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha who was also the Admiral-in-Chief of the Ottoman Fleet. During this unfortunate campaign, which was his last, he served with great bravery. Cortés was almost drowned in a storm that hit his fleet while he was pursuing Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who managed to defeat Andrea Doria and the fleet of Charles V for a second time after the Battle of Preveza.

It may be that had the advice of Cortés been followed that undertaking would have had a less disastrous end; but he was not even consulted. Had his advice been heeded, the Spanish arms might have been saved from disgrace, and Europe delivered nearly three centuries earlier from the scourge of the Barbary pirates.

Final Days and Death

Having spent a great deal of his own money to finance expeditions, he was now heavily in debt. In February 1544 he made a claim on the royal treasury, but was given a royal runaround for the next three years. Disgusted, he decided to return to Mexico in 1547. When he reached Seville, he was stricken with dysentery. He died in Castilleja de la Cuesta, Seville province, on December 2, 1547, from a case of pleurisy at age 62.

Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man. He left his many mestizo and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. He requested in his will that his remains eventually be buried in Mexico. Before he died he had the Pope remove the "natural" status of three of his children (legitimizing them in the eyes of the church), including Martin, the son he had with Doña Marina (also known as La Malinche), said to be his favorite.

Assessment of Cortés

It is extremely difficult to characterize this particular conquistador – his unspeakable atrocities, his tactical and strategic awareness, the rewards for his Tlaxcalteca allies along with the rehabilitation of the nobility (including a castle for Moctezuma's heirs in Spain that still stands), his respect for Indians as worthy adversaries and family members.

Cortés's place in Mexican history

In Mexico today, Cortés is condemned as a modern-day damnatio memoriae. The muralist Diego Rivera depicts him as deformed and a bit seasick. [6] While originally the gulf of California was named "El mar de Cortés" by its discoverer Francisco de Ulloa in 1539, the official name after the independence became "El golfo de California". However, many landmarks still bear his name, from the castle in the city of Cuernavaca to street names throughout the republic.

His body has been moved more than eight times. Since his body arrived in Mexico in 1567, it has been moved several times to avoid destruction. Today, (and unknown to most Mexicans) it is in the "Templo de Jesús" in Mexico City with the only statue of Cortés in Mexican territory, a statue by Manuel Tolsa. In 1981 the statue and the body were in danger of destruction by a nationalistic group, after the statue was made public by President Lopez Portillo, so access has to be restricted. [7]

Further reading

Writings - The "Cartas de Relación"

Cortés' personal account of the conquest of Mexico is narrated in his five letters addressed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. These five letters, or cartas de relación, are Cortés' only writings. See "Letters and Dispatches of Cortés," translated by George Folsom (New York, 1843); Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico" (Boston, 1843); and Sir Arthur Helps's "Life of Hernando Cortes" (London, 1871). [8]

As one specialist describes them, "The cartas de relación have enjoyed an unequaled popularity among students of the Conquest of Mexico. Cortés was a good writer. His letters to the emperor, on the conquest, deserve to be classed among the best Spanish documents of the period. They are, of course, coloured so as to place his own achievements in relief, but, withal, he keeps within bounds and does not exaggerate, except in matters of Indian civilization and the numbers of population as implied by the size of the settlements. Even there he uses comparatives only, judging from outward appearances and from impressions.

Historians, sociologists, and political scientists use them to glean information about the Aztec empire and the clash between the European and Indian cultures. However, as early as the sixteenth century doubt has been cast on the historicity of these Conquest accounts. It is generally accepted that Cortés does not write a true “history,” but rather combines history with fiction. That is to say, in his narrative Cortés manipulates reality in order to achieve his overarching purpose of gaining the favor of the king. Cortés applies the classical rhetorical figure of evidentia as he crafts a powerful narrative full of “vividness” that moves the reader and creates a heightened sense of realism in his letters."

His first letter is lost, and the one from the municipality of Vera Cruz has to take its place. It was published for the first time in volume IV of "Documentos para la Historia de España", and subsequently reprinted. The first carta de relación is available online at [9]

The "Segunda Carta de Relacion", bearing the date of 30 October, 1520, appeared in print at Seville in 1522. The "Carta tercera", 15 May, 1522, appeared at Seville in 1523. The fourth, 20 October, 1524, was printed at Toledo in 1525. The fifth, on the Honduras expedition, is contained in volume IV of the "Documentos para la Historia de España". The important letter mentioned in the text has been published under the heading of "Carta inédita de Cortés" by Ycazbalceta. A great number of minor documents, either by Cortés or others, for or against him, are dispersed through the voluminous collection above cited and through the "Colección de Documentos de Indias", as well as in the "Documentos para la Historia de México" of Ycazbalceta. There are a number of reprints and translations of Cortés's writings into various languages. [10] [11] [12]

Primary sources

• Hernán Cortés, Letters – available as Letters from Mexico translated by Anthony Pagden (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.) ISBN 0300090943
• Francisco López de Gómara, Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, with the whole discovery and notable things that have happened since they were acquired until the year 1551, with the conquest of Mexico and New Spain Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966.
• Bernal Díaz del Castillo, The Conquest of New Spain – available as The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521 ISBN 030681319X
• León-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.) (1992) [1959]. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Ángel María Garibay K. (Nahuatl-Spanish trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.), Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated edition ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0-807-05501-8. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
• History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes By William H. Prescott [13]
• Last Will and Testament of Hernán Cortés [14]

Secondary sources

• Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico by Hugh Thomas (1993) ISBN 0671511041
• Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire by Jon Manchip White (1971) ISBN 0786702710
• History of the Conquest of Mexico. by William H. Prescott ISBN 0375758038
• The Rain God cries over Mexico by László Passuth
• Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0195160770
• The Conquest of America by Tzvetan Todorov (1996) ISBN 0061320951
• "Hernando Cortés" by Fisher, M. & Richardson K.
• "Hernando Cortés" Crossroads Resource Online.
• "Hernando Cortés" by Jacobs, W.J., New York, N.Y.:Franklin Watts, Inc. 1974.
• "The World’s Greatest Explorers: Hernando Cortés." Chicago, by Stein, R.C., Illinois: Chicago Press Inc. 1991.
• Genealogy of Hernan Cortés [15]
• Myth and Reality: The Legacy of Spain in America by Jesus J. Chao. Culture/Society Opinion. February 12, 1992. The Institute of Hispanic Culture of Houston
• Leon­Portilla, Miguel, ed., The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon Press, 1962.

See also

• History of Mexico
• Spanish Conquest of Mexico
• Siege of Tenochtitlan
• Cortez the Killer (song controversy)

External links

• The change of Hernán Cortés´ self-image by means of the conquest
• Hernando Cortes on the Web – web directory with thumbnail galleries
• Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)
• Conquistadors, with Michael Wood – website for 2001 PBS documentary
• Ibero-American Electronic Text Series presented online by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.
• Hernan Cortes - The Conquistador of the Aztecs; Informational Link Blog about the History of Cortes, the Aztecs along with a variety of sources, pictures and educational resources.