Toque macaque: Difference between revisions
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==Conservation== |
==Conservation== |
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[[File:SL Bundala NP asv2020-01 img30.jpg|thumb|upright|''Macaca sinica'' in the [[Bundala National Park]], Sri Lanka]] |
[[File:SL Bundala NP asv2020-01 img30.jpg|thumb|upright|''Macaca sinica'' in the [[Bundala National Park]], Sri Lanka]] |
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The toque macaque is listed as [[Endangered]] by the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) due to habitat destruction and hunting, and also for the [[pet trade]]. Much of the original forested habitat of the toque macaque has been lost, between 1956 and 1993 50% of Sri Lanka's forest cover was destroyed. Plantations and fuel wood collection have been the main drivers of habitat lost. Toque macaques were also used by both [[Sri Lanka Army]] and [[LTTE|Tamil Tigers]] as target practice during the [[Sri Lankan Civil War]].<ref name=iucn/> |
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As of 2008, IUCN listed toque macaque as endangered in their list due to habitat destruction and hunting, and also for taming for pets.<ref>{{Cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12560/3358720#assessment-information|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref> With few patches of forests for survival, they engage to survive close to human habitation, giving a serious trouble for both the parties. Due to devastated eating of crop plants, humans always take precautions to avoid their entrance to the cultivation fields. This results killing by shot, trappings, and poisoning. |
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Both subspecies ''M. s. aurifrons'' and ''M. s. sinica'' are kept as pets.<ref name="iucn"/> |
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==Antibody prevalence== |
==Antibody prevalence== |
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Revision as of 15:28, 29 August 2021
 | This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: ungrammatical phrasings. (October 2015) |
| Toque macaque[1] | |
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Primates |
| Suborder: | Haplorhini |
| Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
| Family: | Cercopithecidae |
| Genus: | Macaca |
| Species: | M. sinica
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| Binomial name | |
| Macaca sinica (Linnaeus, 1771)
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| Toque macaque range map | |
The toque macaque (/tɒk məˈkæk/; Macaca sinica) is a reddish-brown-coloured Old World monkey endemic to Sri Lanka, where it is known as the rilewa or rilawa (Sinhala: රිළවා), (hence "rillow" in the Oxford English Dictionary). Its name refers to the whorl of hair at the crown of the head, reminiscent of a brimless toque cap.[3]
Taxonomy
The generic name Macaca is from Portuguese macaco, of unclear origin, while sinica means "of China," even though the species is not found there.[4]
There are three recognized subspecies of toque macaques:[2]
- Macaca sinica sinica, dry zone toque macaque or common toque macaque
- Macaca sinica aurifrons, wet zone toque macaque or pale-fronted toque macaque
- Macaca sinica opisthomelas, highland toque macaque or hill zone toque macaque
M. s. opisthomelas is similar to subsp. aurifrons, but has a long fur and contrasting golden color in the anterior part of its brown cap.
The three subspecies can be identified their head colour patterns.[5]
Description
With age, the face of females turns slightly pink. This is especially prominent in the subspecies M. s. sinica.
Distribution
M. s. sinica is found from the Vavuniya, Mannar to the lowlands of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Puttalam, and Kurunegala; and along the arid zone of the Monaragala and Hambantota districts.
M. s. aurifrons can be found sympatrically with the subspecies M. s. sinica within intermediate regions of the country in Kegalle and parts of Kurunegala. It is also found in south-western parts of the island in the Galle and Matara districts near Kalu Ganga.
M. s. opisthomelas has recently been identified as a separate subspecies. It can be found in the entire south-western region of Ratnapura and in the Nuwara Eliya districts. It is also found around Hakgala Botanical Garden and other cold climatic montane forest patches.[6]
==Behaviour and ecology
Social structure
Social status is highly structured in toque macaque troops and dominance hierarchies occur among both males and females. A troop may consist of eight to forty individuals. When the troop becomes too large, social tension and aggression towards each other rises, causing some individuals to leave. This is noticeable in adults and sub adults, where a troop may consist largely of females. Newly appointed alpha males show aggressiveness towards females, causing the females to leave the group. Fighting within the troop can cause serious injuries including broken arms.[6]
Young offspring of a troop's alpha female will typically receive better sustenance and shelter than their peers.[7]
Reproduction
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When in estrous, the female's perineum becomes reddish in color and swells. This signals to males that she is ready to mate. There is an average of 18 months between births. After a 5–6 month gestation period, the female will give birth to a single offspring. The baby will hold on to its mother for about 2 months. During this time the infant learns social skills critical for survival. The infant will inherit its social standing from its mother's position in the troop. Young males are forced to abandon their troop when they are about 6–8 years of age. This prevents inbreeding and ensures that the current alpha male maintains his position in the troop. Leaving the troop is the only way a male can change his social standing. If he has good social skills and is strong he may become an alpha male. A single alpha male can father all of the troops' offspring.[6]
Birth rarely occurs during the day or on the ground. During labor the female isolates herself from the group (about 100 m). The mother stands bipedally during parturition and assists the delivery with her hands. The infant is usually born 2 minutes after crowning. The infant can vocalize almost immediately after birth; it is important for the mother and infant to recognize each other's voices. Vocalization will be used to alert the mother of imminent danger, and can assist in finding each other if separated. After birth the mother licks the infant and orients it toward her breasts. She will resume foraging behavior within 20 minutes after parturition. The mother also eats part of the placenta, because it contains needed protein. The alpha female of the group asserts her power by taking part of the placenta for herself to eat.[8]
Diet
One study of toque macaques recorded a diet of 14% flowers, 77% fruits, 5% mushrooms, and 4% prey items. The prefered fruit species included Ficus bengalensis, Glenniea unijuga, Schleichera oleosa, Drypetes sepiaria, Grewia polygama, Ficus amplissima, and Ficus retusa. It was found that mushrooms were much sought after during the wet season.[9]
Cheek pouches enable toque macaques to store enough food while eating fast. In the dry zone, they are known to eat drupes of understory shrub Zizyphus, ripe fruits of Ficus, and Cordia species. They occasionally eat many small animals ranging from small insects to mammals like indian palm squirrels and Vandeleuria oleracea.[6]
Predators
Wild cats (leopards and fishing cats) and Indian rock python are the main predators of this species.
Life expectancy
The lifespan of toque macaques in the wild is about the same as in captivity, up to 35 years. The expected lifespan in the wild is low due to high infant mortality rates. There is also significant mortality among adolescent males when they venture off to join a different troop. Once toque macaques have reached sexual maturity they will likely live to an old age.[5][10]
Conservation
The toque macaque is listed as Endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to habitat destruction and hunting, and also for the pet trade. Much of the original forested habitat of the toque macaque has been lost, between 1956 and 1993 50% of Sri Lanka's forest cover was destroyed. Plantations and fuel wood collection have been the main drivers of habitat lost. Toque macaques were also used by both Sri Lanka Army and Tamil Tigers as target practice during the Sri Lankan Civil War.[2]
Both subspecies M. s. aurifrons and M. s. sinica are kept as pets.[2]
Antibody prevalence
In an experiment, serum samples taken from toque macaque individuals at Polonnaruwa were examined for antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii by the modified agglutination test. There was no evidence of maternal transmission of antibodies or congenital toxoplasmosis. None of the infected macaques died within 1 year after sampling. Toxoplasma gondii infection was closely linked to human environments where domestic cats were common. Although infection with T. gondii has been noted in several species of Asian primates, this is the first report of T. gondii antibodies in toque macaques.
As dengue reservoir
It's unclear if nonhuman primates also serve as a reservoir of human dengue viruses under certain conditions. According to a study by some biologists, a cross-sectional serologic survey was carried out to characterize the pattern of transmission of a recently identified dengue virus among toque macaques in Sri Lanka. The results indicated that an epizootic dengue virus was active among the macaques. A single epizootic had taken place between October 1986 and February 1987 during which 94% of the macaques within the 3 km2 study site were exposed to the virus. The epizootic was highly focal in nature because macaques living 5 km from the study population were not exposed to the virus. The transmission of dengue viruses among macaques in the wild may have important public health implications.[11]
References
- ^ Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ a b c d Dittus, W.; Watson, A. & Molur, S. (2008). "Macaca sinica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T12560A3358720. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T12560A3358720.en.
- ^ "Toque macaque". New England Primate Conservancy.
- ^ "Wildlife Review". U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. February 9, 1993.
- ^ a b Fooden, Jack (1979). "Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques: I. Species and subspecies accounts of Macaca sinica". Primates. 20: 109–140. doi:10.1007/BF02373832. S2CID 27742337.
- ^ a b c d Yapa, A.; Ratnavira, G. (2013). Mammals of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka. p. 1012. ISBN 978-955-8576-32-8.
- ^ "Animal Babies: First Year on Earth" – via www.pbs.org.
- ^ Ratnayeke, A. P.; Dittus, W. P. J. (1989). "Observation of a birth among wild toque macaques (Macaca sinica)". International Journal of Primatology. 10 (3): 235–242. doi:10.1007/BF02735202. S2CID 40473283.
- ^ Hladik, C.M.; Hladik, A. (1972). "Disponibilites alimentaires et domaines vitaux des primates a Ceylan". La Terre et la Vie (in French). 26: 149–215. doi:10.1007/BF02373832.
- ^ Kanelos, Matthew. "Macaca sinica (toque macaque)". Animal Diversity Web.
- ^ http://www.ajtmh.org/content/60/2/300.full.pdf
External links
