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==History==
==History==
General Barry pointed out that after the First Battle of Bull Run, there were only nine artillery batteries of mixed calibers available, drawn by 400 horses and manned by 650 men. By strenuous efforts, in March 1862 when McClellan's [[Army of the Potomac]] took the field, there were 92 batteries containing 520 guns, 12,500 men, and 11,000 horses. Many obsolete guns brought to the eastern army at [[Washington, D.C.]] by volunteer artillery units were replaced by newer guns.{{sfn|Cole|2002|p=21}} Older guns rejected in the east migrated west and were used to equip the western Union armies. The 1862 inventory by the Ohio Quartermaster General listed only 10 12-pounder Napoleons, compared to 44 [[14-pounder James rifle]]s, 38 rifled 6-pounder guns, and 30 M1841 6-pounder field guns.{{sfn|Hazlett|Olmstead|Parks|2004|p=51}} Meanwhile, at the [[Battle of Antietam]] on 16–17 September 1862, out of 301 artillery pieces, the well-equipped Army of the Potomac had 117 12-pounder Napoleons, 81 [[3-inch Ordnance rifle]]s and 57 [[10-pounder Parrott rifle]]s. On the same battlefield, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia employed only 14 Napoleons, compared to 44 M1841 12-pounder howitzers, 43 10-pounder Parrott rifles, and 41 M1841 6-pounder guns.{{sfn|Johnson|Anderson|1995|p=129}}
General Barry pointed out that after the First Battle of Bull Run, there were only nine artillery batteries of mixed calibers available, drawn by 400 horses and manned by 650 men. By strenuous efforts, in March 1862 when McClellan's [[Army of the Potomac]] took the field, there were 92 batteries containing 520 guns, 12,500 men, and 11,000 horses. Many obsolete guns brought to the eastern army at [[Washington, D.C.]] by volunteer artillery units were replaced by newer guns.{{sfn|Cole|2002|p=21}} Older guns rejected in the east migrated west and were used to equip the western Union armies. The 1862 inventory by the Ohio Quartermaster General listed only 10 12-pounder Napoleons out of 162 available guns, compared to 44 [[14-pounder James rifle]]s, 38 rifled 6-pounder guns, and 30 M1841 6-pounder field guns.{{sfn|Hazlett|Olmstead|Parks|2004|p=51}} As late as the [[Battle of Prairie Grove]] on 7 December 1862, fought in [[Arkansas]], the Union forces employed 40 guns, but none of them were Napoleons.{{sfn|Shea|2009|pp=160 & 218}}

Meanwhile, at the [[Battle of Antietam]] on 16–17 September 1862, out of 301 artillery pieces, the well-equipped Army of the Potomac had 117 12-pounder Napoleons, 81 [[3-inch Ordnance rifle]]s and 57 [[10-pounder Parrott rifle]]s. On the same battlefield, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia employed only 14 Napoleons, compared to 44 M1841 12-pounder howitzers, 43 10-pounder Parrott rifles, and 41 M1841 6-pounder guns.{{sfn|Johnson|Anderson|1995|p=129}} Most Confederate batteries were made up of a mix of guns.{{sfn|Johnson|Anderson|1995|pp=86–101}} [[Captain (armed forces)|Captain]] M. B. Miller's 3rd Company of the [[Washington Artillery]] was exceptional in that it was composed of four 12-pounder Napoleons. A Union shell blew up one of its caissons and it sustained losses 2 killed, 10 wounded, and 2 missing. Miller's battery conducted an admirable defense of the Confederate center.{{sfn|Johnson|Anderson|1995|p=90}} Captain Joseph B. Campbell's [[4th U.S. Artillery, Battery B]], armed with six 12-pounder Napoleons, suffered losses of 9 killed and 31 wounded.{{sfn|Johnson|Anderson|1995|p=70}} Deployed in an exposed position near the Bloody Cornfield at dawn, it took so many casualties that it was withdrawn at 7:30 am.{{sfn|Johnson|Anderson|1995|p=53}} While in position, Campbell's battery broke up Confederate attacks and, in addition to casualties, lost 27 horses killed.{{sfn|Johnson|Anderson|1995|p=62}}


==Civil War artillery==
==Civil War artillery==
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* {{cite web|last=Morgan |first=James |title=Green Ones and Black Ones: The Most Common Field Pieces of the Civil War |year=2002 |publisher=civilwarhome.com |url=https://www.civilwarhome.com/artillery.html}}
* {{cite web|last=Morgan |first=James |title=Green Ones and Black Ones: The Most Common Field Pieces of the Civil War |year=2002 |publisher=civilwarhome.com |url=https://www.civilwarhome.com/artillery.html}}
*{{cite book|last=Ripley |first=Warren |title=Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War |location=Charleston, S.C. |publisher=The Battery Press |year=1970 |oclc=12668104 }}
*{{cite book|last=Ripley |first=Warren |title=Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War |location=Charleston, S.C. |publisher=The Battery Press |year=1970 |oclc=12668104 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Shea |first1=William L. |last2=Hess |first2=Earl J. |title=Pea Ridge: Civil War Campaign in the West |url=https://archive.org/details/pearidgecivilwar0000shea |url-access=registration |year=1992 |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, N.C. |isbn=0-8078-4669-4}}
*{{cite book|last=Shea |first=William L. |title=Fields of Blood: The Prairie Grove Campaign |year=2009 |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, N.C. |isbn=978-0-8078-3315-5 }}


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 16:48, 22 September 2021

M1857 12-pounder Napoleon
M1857 12-pounder Napoleon at Gettysburg National Military Park
TypeGun-Howitzer
Place of originUnited States
Service history
In service1857–1865
Used byUnited States United States
WarsAmerican Civil War
Production history
ManufacturerCyrus Alger & Co.
Ames Co.
Henry N. Hooper & Co.
Miles Greenwood & Co.
Revere Copper Co.
Produced1857–1864
No. builtUSA: 1,157, CSA: 501
Specifications
Mass1,227 lb (556.6 kg)
Length66.0 in (1.68 m)
Crew9
Shell weight12.3 lb (5.6 kg) shell
2.5 lb (1.1 kg) charge
Caliber4.62 in (117 mm)
Barrels1
ActionMuzzle loading
Carriage1,128 lb (511.7 kg)
Rate of fire1 rounds/minute
Muzzle velocity1,485 ft/s (453 m/s)
Effective firing range1,680 yd (1,536 m)

The M1857 12-pounder Napoleon or Light 12-pounder gun or 12-pounder gun-howitzer was a bronze smoothbore muzzle-loading artillery piece that was adopted by the United States Army in 1857 and extensively employed in the American Civil War. The gun was the American-manufactured version of the French canon obusier de 12 which combined the functions of both field gun and howitzer. The weapon proved to be simple to produce, reliable, and robust. It fired a 12.3 lb (5.6 kg) round shot shell a distance of 1,619 to 1,680 yd (1,480 to 1,536 m) at 5° elevation.[note 1] It could also fire canister shot, common shell, and spherical case shot. The 12-pounder Napoleon outclassed and soon replaced the M1841 6-pounder field gun and the M1841 12-pounder howitzer in the US Army, while replacement of these older weapons was slower in the Confederate States Army. A total of 1,157 were produced for the US Army, all but a few in the period 1861–1863. The Confederate States of America utilized captured US 12-pounder Napoleons and also manufactured about 500 during the war. The weapon was named after Napoleon III of France who helped develop the weapon.

Background

In the period before the Civil War, a US Army light artillery battery was organized with four M1841 6-pounder field guns and two M1841 12-pounder howitzers.[1] The field gun fired solid iron cannon balls in a flat trajectory to smash its targets[2] while the howitzer was designed to lob hollow shells into massed formations or fortifications.[3] Napoleon III realized that mixing field guns and howitzers within an artillery battery caused the logistical problem of having to carry two types of ammunition. He understood that batteries might become more effective if a single gun could fire both the round shot of the field gun and the common shell and spherical case shot of the howitzer. (Both field guns and howitzers were already capable of firing canister shot.) The French gun designers' solution to the problem was the invention of the canon obusier de 12 or 12-pounder gun-howitzer. By 1856, this new weapon had been adopted by France, Austria, Prussia, Saxony, and Russia. An American military commission sent to Europe in 1855–1856 led by Major Alfred Mordecai wrote a report praising the new gun-howitzer[4] and the US Ordnance Department quickly obtained a license to produce the gun.[5]

On 14 December 1856, the Ames Manufacturing Company received an order to produce a copy of the gun-howitzer, and on 25 March 1857 the Ordnance Department accepted delivery of one 1,187 lb (538 kg) piece for a cost of $546.02. The weapon failed its trial, but in 2004 the original gun could be seen at the Petersburg National Battlefield visitor center. On 28 May 1857, the Ordnance Department ordered four guns of a modified version from Ames and these pieces were delivered on 16 September 1857. The four modified guns were 3 in (76 mm) longer than the original gun and 40 lb (18.1 kg) heavier. These four guns became the standard model for all 12-pounder Napoleons subsequently produced for the US Army. When the Civil War broke out in April 1861, the US Army owned only the original five 12-pounder Napoleons. The US Army needed field artillery and there was no time to experiment with new gun types. Since, the new gun could be produced quickly, orders were placed with Ames and Cyrus Alger & Company. Later, more contracts were let to Henry N. Hooper & Company, Revere Copper Company, and Miles Greenwood & Company.[6] A single experimental wrought iron Napoleon was manufactured by the Phoenix Iron Works.[7]

Production

One member of the 1855 American military commission was Captain George B. McClellan who became major general in command of US forces in summer 1861. Like Mordecai, McClellan saw the advantages of using a single artillery piece to combine the functions of both field gun and howitzer. In 1861, McClellan approved the plan offered by his chief of artillery Brigadier General William Farquhar Barry, which included the goal to arm Union Army field artillery batteries exclusively with the light 12-pounder smoothbore, the 3-inch Ordnance rifle, and the Parrott rifle. Each battery was organized so as to contain six identical guns, if possible, with no less than four guns per battery. By the time of the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, the US Army had only nine 12-pounder Napoleons, and by 1 January 1862, it had only 36 Napoleons. In August 1861, 22 Napoleons were ordered[8] and 153 were ordered in October and November 1861.[9]

When it became clear that the war would be a long one, many more guns were ordered. The number of 12-pounder Napoleons produced for the Federal government each year were 1861 (179), 1862 (422), 1863 (512), and 1864 (13). In 1864, 39 Napoleons were produced for the states of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Ohio. The US manufacturers and how many guns they produced are shown in the following table.[9]

Manufacturers of US Army 12-pounder Napoleons[9][10]
Maker Location No. Produced
Ames Manufacturing Co. Chicopee, Massachusetts 103
Cyrus Alger & Co. Boston, Massachusetts 170
Henry M. Hooper & Co. Boston, Massachusetts 370
Miles Greenwood & Co. Cincinnati, Ohio 52
Phoenix Iron Works Phoenixville, Pennsylvania 1
Revere Copper Co. Boston, Massachusetts 461

The Confederate States started the Civil War with its batteries largely armed with the M1841 6-pounder field guns and M1841 12-pounder howitzers found in Southern arsenals. The Confederate States were hampered by having an inferior industrial capacity compared to the North and were far behind in the production of 12-pounder Napoleons. In addition, the South suffered from such a shortage of copper that in May 1861 no bronze guns could be produced. In December 1861, bronze gun casting resumed when enough copper was found, mostly from melted down stills and church bells.[11] On 10 July 1862, Confederate chief of ordnance Colonel Josiah Gorgas sent the Tredegar Iron Works plans for the 12-pounder Napoleon. Gorgas asked that all production of the 6-pounder gun and 12-pounder howitzer be suspended, so that the new Napoleons could be manufactured. On 13 November 1862, Gorgas ordered that 12-pounder Napoleons should be the only bronze artillery pieces produced. On 5 December 1862, General Robert E. Lee wrote to the Confederate Secretary of War James Seddon asking that most 6-pounder guns and some 12-pounder howitzers be melted down and recast as 12-pounder Napoleons.[12] By the Battle of Gettysburg on 1–3 July 1863, Lee's army received 49 of the recast Napoleons.[13]

The Federal capture of New Orleans in April 1862 ended production of Napoleons at Leeds & Company, while the Union capture of Memphis in June 1862 ended production at Quinby & Robinson. Other Confederate makers of Napoleons were the Augusta, Charleston, Columbus, and Macon Arsenals. Most Confederate-manufactured Napoleons did not have the muzzle swell that was characteristic of US-manufactured Napoleons. In December 1863, Federal troops captured the copper mines at Ducktown, Tennessee, stopping all manufacture of bronze cannons in the Confederate States. After this, the Tredegar Iron Works produced a cast iron Napoleon with a 2 in (51 mm) thick breech band.[14] The Confederate manufacturers and how many guns they produced are shown in the following table.[10]

Photo shows a Civil War era cannon. Its bronze barrel has a pale green patina from weathering.
Confederate-made 12-pounder Napoleon at Gettysburg shows a lack of muzzle swell.
Manufacturers of Confederate 12-pounder Napoleons[10]
Maker Location No. Produced
Augusta Arsenal Augusta, Georgia c. 130
Charleston Arsenal Charleston, South Carolina c. 20
Columbus Arsenal Columbus, Georgia 52
Leeds & Company New Orleans, Louisiana 12
Macon Arsenal Macon, Georgia 53
Quinby & Robinson Memphis, Tennessee 8
Tredegar Iron Works Richmond, Virginia 226

Specifications

Photo shows an American Civil War era cannon with a pale green patina.
Federal M1857 12-pounder Napoleon

The Model 1857 bronze 12-pounder Napoleon gun barrel was 72.15 in (183.3 cm) from the muzzle to the end of the knob and weighed 1,227 lb (556.6 kg). The diameter of the bore (caliber) was 4.62 in (11.7 cm) and the bore length was 63.6 in (161.5 cm). With a 2.5 lb (1.1 kg) gunpowder charge it was capable of firing solid shot 1,680 yd (1,536 m) at 5° elevation and spherical case (shrapnel) shot 1,135 yd (1,038 m) at 3°45' elevation. With a 2.0 lb (0.9 kg) gunpowder charge it was capable of firing common shell 1,300 yd (1,189 m) at 3°45' elevation.[15] The cannon fired a 12.25 lb (5.6 kg) round shot of 4.52 in (11.5 cm) diameter. The spherical case shot weighed 12.1 lb (5.5 kg) and released 78 musket balls when it burst. The canister round weighed 14.8 lb (6.7 kg) and contained 27 iron balls that were 1.49 in (3.8 cm) in diameter or slightly smaller.[16] Canister shot was packed in four tiers within the canister round. When fired, canister was effective up to a distance of 350 yd (320 m).[17]

The first 12-pounder Napoleons produced by Northern gun foundries included a pair of handles attached to the top of the gun barrel. As many as 33 were manufactured before the handles were eliminated in late 1861. Of the 21 surviving Napoleons with handles, 17 were produced by Ames, 3 by Alger, and 1 by Revere. Ames also manufactured 6 bronze rifled Napoleons in 1862; all survived and were located at Gettysburg National Military Park in 2004.[18] The Napoleon was a very dependable weapon. In 1864, US Chief of Ordnance Brigadier General George D. Ramsay wrote, "No instance has occurred during the war ... of the 12-pdr bronze gun (the Napoleon) having worn out or of its bursting."[19] Many Confederate gunners preferred the Napoleons produced in the North because of their higher quality. A British observer, Arthur Lyon Fremantle noted in 1863 that many of the guns belonging to the Army of Northern Virginia were captured pieces of Northern manufacture.[20]

The 12-pounder Napoleon was the most favored field gun of both Union and Confederate armies. It was fairly accurate at all ranges and especially lethal when firing canister at close range.[5] The Napoleon was mounted on a carriage weighing 1,128 lb (511.7 kg).[21] The Napoleon fired the same ammunition and propellent charges as the M1841 12-pounder field gun, but its tube and carriage were 577 lb (261.7 kg) lighter than those of the older artillery piece.[22] A 6-gun Union battery of Napoleons was made up of three 2-gun sections. Each gun was hitched to a limber drawn by six horses and accompanied by a limber and caisson drawn by six horses. There was one ammunition box on each limber and two ammunition boxes on each caisson. Generally, each battery also had six reserve limber and caissons, one traveling forge wagon, and one battery wagon hauling equipment.[1]

The ammunition box for the Napoleon contained 32 rounds.[23] At Gettysburg, the 5th Maine Light Artillery Battery, armed with six 12-pounder Napoleons, carried 288 round shot, 288 spherical case, 96 common shells, and 96 canister rounds in its limbers and caissons.[24] In a single ammunition box there were 12 shot, 12 spherical case, 4 shells, 4 canister rounds, and 48 friction primers.[25] But this allocation of ammunition changed. According to the 1864 US Army Field Artillery Instructions, the ammunition box contained 20 round shot, 8 spherical case, and 4 canister rounds. The 1863 Confederate States Ordnance Manual recommended that the Napoleon's ammunition box carry 12 shot, 12 spherical case, 4 shell, and 4 canister rounds.[26] A 6-gun battery of 12-pounder Napoleons with two caissons per gun required 20 6-horse teams and 10 extra horses.[27][28] Each 6-horse team was controlled by three drivers and each gun crew was made up of nine cannoneers.[1]

History

General Barry pointed out that after the First Battle of Bull Run, there were only nine artillery batteries of mixed calibers available, drawn by 400 horses and manned by 650 men. By strenuous efforts, in March 1862 when McClellan's Army of the Potomac took the field, there were 92 batteries containing 520 guns, 12,500 men, and 11,000 horses. Many obsolete guns brought to the eastern army at Washington, D.C. by volunteer artillery units were replaced by newer guns.[29] Older guns rejected in the east migrated west and were used to equip the western Union armies. The 1862 inventory by the Ohio Quartermaster General listed only 10 12-pounder Napoleons out of 162 available guns, compared to 44 14-pounder James rifles, 38 rifled 6-pounder guns, and 30 M1841 6-pounder field guns.[30] As late as the Battle of Prairie Grove on 7 December 1862, fought in Arkansas, the Union forces employed 40 guns, but none of them were Napoleons.[31]

Meanwhile, at the Battle of Antietam on 16–17 September 1862, out of 301 artillery pieces, the well-equipped Army of the Potomac had 117 12-pounder Napoleons, 81 3-inch Ordnance rifles and 57 10-pounder Parrott rifles. On the same battlefield, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia employed only 14 Napoleons, compared to 44 M1841 12-pounder howitzers, 43 10-pounder Parrott rifles, and 41 M1841 6-pounder guns.[32] Most Confederate batteries were made up of a mix of guns.[33] Captain M. B. Miller's 3rd Company of the Washington Artillery was exceptional in that it was composed of four 12-pounder Napoleons. A Union shell blew up one of its caissons and it sustained losses 2 killed, 10 wounded, and 2 missing. Miller's battery conducted an admirable defense of the Confederate center.[34] Captain Joseph B. Campbell's 4th U.S. Artillery, Battery B, armed with six 12-pounder Napoleons, suffered losses of 9 killed and 31 wounded.[35] Deployed in an exposed position near the Bloody Cornfield at dawn, it took so many casualties that it was withdrawn at 7:30 am.[36] While in position, Campbell's battery broke up Confederate attacks and, in addition to casualties, lost 27 horses killed.[37]

Civil War artillery

Main article: Field artillery in the American Civil War
Characteristics of common American Civil War artillery pieces[21][38]
Description Caliber Tube length Tube weight Carriage weight Shot weight Charge weight Range 5° elev.
M1841 6-pounder cannon 3.67 in (9.3 cm) 60 in (152.4 cm) 884 lb (401 kg) 900 lb (408 kg) 6.1 lb (2.8 kg) 1.25 lb (0.6 kg) 1,523 yd (1,393 m)
M1841 12-pounder cannon 4.62 in (11.7 cm) 78 in (198.1 cm) 1,757 lb (797 kg) 1,175 lb (533 kg) 12.3 lb (5.6 kg) 2.5 lb (1.1 kg) 1,663 yd (1,521 m)
M1841 12-pounder howitzer 4.62 in (11.7 cm) 53 in (134.6 cm) 788 lb (357 kg) 900 lb (408 kg) 8.9 lb (4.0 kg) 1.0 lb (0.5 kg) 1,072 yd (980 m)
M1841 24-pounder howitzer 5.82 in (14.8 cm) 65 in (165.1 cm) 1,318 lb (598 kg) 1,128 lb (512 kg) 18.4 lb (8.3 kg) 2.0 lb (0.9 kg) 1,322 yd (1,209 m)
M1857 12-pounder Napoleon 4.62 in (11.7 cm) 66 in (167.6 cm) 1,227 lb (557 kg) 1,128 lb (512 kg) 12.3 lb (5.6 kg) 2.5 lb (1.1 kg) 1,619 yd (1,480 m)
12-pounder James rifle 3.67 in (9.3 cm) 60 in (152.4 cm) 875 lb (397 kg) 900 lb (408 kg)[39] 12 lb (5.4 kg) 0.75 lb (0.3 kg) 1,700 yd (1,554 m)
3-inch Ordnance rifle 3.0 in (7.6 cm) 69 in (175.3 cm) 820 lb (372 kg) 900 lb (408 kg)[40] 9.5 lb (4.3 kg) 1.0 lb (0.5 kg) 1,830 yd (1,673 m)
10-pounder Parrott rifle 3.0 in (7.6 cm) 74 in (188.0 cm) 899 lb (408 kg) 900 lb (408 kg)[40] 9.5 lb (4.3 kg) 1.0 lb (0.5 kg) 1,900 yd (1,737 m)
20-pounder Parrott rifle 3.67 in (9.3 cm) 84 in (213.4 cm) 1,750 lb (794 kg) 1,175 lb (533 kg)[39] 20 lb (9.1 kg) 2.0 lb (0.9 kg) 1,900 yd (1,737 m)

Notes

Footnotes
  1. ^ The sources Coggins, Katcher, and Ripley provide different ranges for round shot at 5° elevation.
Citations
  1. ^ a b c Coggins 2004, p. 63.
  2. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, p. 28.
  3. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, p. 70.
  4. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, p. 88.
  5. ^ a b Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 21.
  6. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, pp. 88–89.
  7. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, pp. 95–96.
  8. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, p. 89.
  9. ^ a b c Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, p. 91.
  10. ^ a b c Katcher 2001, p. 25.
  11. ^ Katcher 2001, pp. 22–23.
  12. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, pp. 100–101.
  13. ^ Katcher 2001, p. 23.
  14. ^ Katcher 2001, pp. 23–24.
  15. ^ Ripley 1970, p. 366.
  16. ^ Ripley 1970, p. 379.
  17. ^ Coggins 2004, p. 67.
  18. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, pp. 92–93.
  19. ^ Katcher 2001, p. 20.
  20. ^ Katcher 2001, p. 24.
  21. ^ a b Coggins 2004, p. 66.
  22. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 23.
  23. ^ Coggins 2004, p. 69.
  24. ^ Cole 2002, pp. 109–110.
  25. ^ Cole 2002, p. 106.
  26. ^ Katcher 2001, p. 18.
  27. ^ Coggins 2004, p. 73.
  28. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 28.
  29. ^ Cole 2002, p. 21.
  30. ^ Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, p. 51.
  31. ^ Shea 2009, pp. 160 & 218.
  32. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 129.
  33. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, pp. 86–101.
  34. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 90.
  35. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 70.
  36. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 53.
  37. ^ Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 62.
  38. ^ Coggins 2004, p. 77.
  39. ^ a b Johnson & Anderson 1995, p. 25.
  40. ^ a b Hazlett, Olmstead & Parks 2004, p. 217.

References

  • Coggins, Jack (2004). Arms and Equipment of the Civil War. New York, N.Y.: Fairfax Press. ISBN 0-517-402351.
  • Cole, Phillip M. (2002). Civil War Artillery at Gettysburg. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81145-6.
  • Hazlett, James C.; Olmstead, Edwin; Parks, M. Hume (2004). Field Artillery Weapons of the American Civil War. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-07210-3.
  • Johnson, Curt; Anderson, Richard C. Jr. (1995). Artillery Hell: The Employment of Artillery at Antietam. College Station, Tex.: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096-623-0.
  • Katcher, Philip (2001). American Civil War Artillery 1861–1865. Osceola, Wisc.: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-451-5.
  • Morgan, James (2002). "Green Ones and Black Ones: The Most Common Field Pieces of the Civil War". civilwarhome.com.
  • Ripley, Warren (1970). Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War. Charleston, S.C.: The Battery Press. OCLC 12668104.
  • Shea, William L. (2009). Fields of Blood: The Prairie Grove Campaign. Chapel Hill, N.C.: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3315-5.

See also

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