User:Kaseyfountain/Anaplasmosis: Difference between revisions
Anaplasmosis sandbox draft |
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=== Lead === |
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'''Anaplasmosis''' is a disease caused by a [[Rickettsia|rickettsial]] [[parasite]] of [[Ruminant|ruminants]], ''[[Anaplasma]]'' spp and is therefore related to rickettsial disease. The microorganisms are Gram-negative, and infect [[Red blood cell|red blood cells]]. They are transmitted by natural means through a number of [[haematophagous]] species of [[ticks]]. The ''[[Ixodes]]'' [[tick]] that commonly transmits [[Lyme disease]] also spreads anaplasmosis. |
'''Anaplasmosis''' is a disease caused by a [[Rickettsia|rickettsial]] [[parasite]] of [[Ruminant|ruminants]], ''[[Anaplasma]]'' spp and is therefore related to rickettsial disease. Anaplasmosis is an infectious but not contagious disease. The microorganisms are Gram-negative, and infect [[Red blood cell|red blood cells]]. They are transmitted by natural means through a number of [[haematophagous]] species of [[ticks]]. The ''[[Ixodes]]'' [[tick]] that commonly transmits [[Lyme disease]] also spreads anaplasmosis. |
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== Transmission[edit] == |
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Anaplasmosis is classified as a tick-borne disease. The most common tick that carries the bacterium is [[Ixodes scapularis]], also known as the black-legged tick or the deer tick. Ticks who contain species of many different ''Anaplasma'' species can transmit this disease through a bite. This disease can also be contracted from biting flies. Once infected with anaplasmosis, the cattle will always be a carrier of the infectious disease. |
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Anaplasmosis can also be contracted from blood transfusions, as well as using surgical, [[Cattle dehorning|dehorning]], [[castration]], and [[tattoo]] instruments and [[Hypodermic needle|hypodermic needles]] that are not disinfected between uses. |
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== Signs and Symptoms == |
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Classic signs and symptoms of anaplasmosis include [[fever]], a [[Leukopenia|decreased number of white blood cells]], [[Thrombocytopenia|platelets]] in the bloodstream, and abnormally elevated levels of [[Aminotransferase|liver enzymes]]. The [[erythema chronicum migrans]] rash may be seen with anaplasmosis as it is co-transmitted in 10% of Lyme disease cases. |
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[[Anemia]] may be severe and result in cardiovascular changes such as an [[Tachycardia|increase in heart rate]]. [[Haematuria|Blood in the urine]] may occur due to the lysis of red blood cells. General systemic signs such as [[diarrhea]], anorexia, and weight loss may also be present. |
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All cattle are susceptible to infection by ''Anaplasma marginale'', but the severity worsens with age increase |
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=== Causes === |
=== Causes === |
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There are many strains of Anaplasma marginale, all with differing morphology, antigenic properties, protein sequence, and their ability to be transmitted by ticks. Major surface proteins (MSP) have been found to play a major role in the infection by Anaplasma marginale. Out of the six MSP found on this species, three of the major surface proteins do not seem to differ between all strains, those including MSP1a, MSP4, and MSP5. msp1a gene, which codes for MSP1a is used as a marker for the identification of Anaplasma marginale because it has shown to be conserved in the multiplication of rickettsia in cattle and ticks and has been shown to be involved in adhesion of to bovine erythrocytes and tick cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aubry|first=P.|last2=Geale|first2=D. W.|date=2011|title=A Review of Bovine Anaplasmosis|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01173.x|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=1–30|doi=10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01173.x|issn=1865-1682}}</ref> |
There are many strains of Anaplasma marginale, all with differing morphology, antigenic properties, protein sequence, and their ability to be transmitted by ticks. Major surface proteins (MSP) have been found to play a major role in the infection by Anaplasma marginale. Out of the six MSP found on this species, three of the major surface proteins do not seem to differ between all strains, those including MSP1a, MSP4, and MSP5. msp1a gene, which codes for MSP1a is used as a marker for the identification of Anaplasma marginale because it has shown to be conserved in the multiplication of rickettsia in cattle and ticks and has been shown to be involved in adhesion of to bovine erythrocytes and tick cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aubry|first=P.|last2=Geale|first2=D. W.|date=2011|title=A Review of Bovine Anaplasmosis|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01173.x|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=1–30|doi=10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01173.x|issn=1865-1682}}</ref> |
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=== Prevention === |
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There are currently no live or killed vaccines approved by the USDA that is effective against all strains of A. marginale. There are vaccines that rely on erythrocyte-derived antigen sources to provide immunity or prevent clinical disease, although these do not prevent cattle from being infected with A. marginale. Other means of prevention can include testing all ruminants in a herd and eliminate any individuals who test positive for anaplasmosis, leading to an anaplasmosis-free herd. There are also means of vector control that can be used. Tick control is widely used in some countries, including Africa, but rarely used in the United States due to the fact that this prevention method is labor-intensive and expensive. In contrast, the control of flies is effective and there are many ways to do this. Chemical agents can be used, sanitation methods (such as cleaning stalls/pens regularly, manure management, and protecting feed), as well as biological control by natural enemies of flies (including bees, mites, parasitoids). There are also ways to prevent iatrogenic transmission, by avoiding re-using of needles, and sanitizing medical equipment between uses. Antimicrobial treatment can also be used, although it is more commonly used in the case of active infection. This includes the drugs tetracycline and imidocarb, and is used in healthy ruminants to decrease the clinical effects of an active infection. |
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== Treatment == |
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The most common source of treatment is the use of tetracycline drugs (including tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, rolitetracycline, doxycycline, and minocycline) and imidocarb. An injection of tetracycline drugs can give ruminants immunity to Anaplasma species for at least eight months. Imidocarb has been shown to be highly effective against Anaplasma marginale, but has been identified as a possible carcinogen and is not approved in the United States or Europe. Countries such as South Africa, Australia, Isreal, and South America have used live vaccines containing infectious Anaplasma centrale to prevent infection of Anaplasma marginale. Live vaccines are prohibited in the United States, and there has been production of vaccines comprised of nonliving Anaplasma marginale pulled from infected bovine erythrocytes, which can provide some immunity but leaves cattle susceptible to other strains of Anaplasma marginale. Supportive therapy such as [[blood products]] and fluids may be necessary. |
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=== References === |
=== References === |
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Article Draft
Lead
Anaplasmosis is a disease caused by a rickettsial parasite of ruminants, Anaplasma spp and is therefore related to rickettsial disease. Anaplasmosis is an infectious but not contagious disease. The microorganisms are Gram-negative, and infect red blood cells. They are transmitted by natural means through a number of haematophagous species of ticks. The Ixodes tick that commonly transmits Lyme disease also spreads anaplasmosis.
Transmission[edit]
Anaplasmosis is classified as a tick-borne disease. The most common tick that carries the bacterium is Ixodes scapularis, also known as the black-legged tick or the deer tick. Ticks who contain species of many different Anaplasma species can transmit this disease through a bite. This disease can also be contracted from biting flies. Once infected with anaplasmosis, the cattle will always be a carrier of the infectious disease.
Anaplasmosis can also be contracted from blood transfusions, as well as using surgical, dehorning, castration, and tattoo instruments and hypodermic needles that are not disinfected between uses.
Signs and Symptoms
Classic signs and symptoms of anaplasmosis include fever, a decreased number of white blood cells, platelets in the bloodstream, and abnormally elevated levels of liver enzymes. The erythema chronicum migrans rash may be seen with anaplasmosis as it is co-transmitted in 10% of Lyme disease cases.
Anemia may be severe and result in cardiovascular changes such as an increase in heart rate. Blood in the urine may occur due to the lysis of red blood cells. General systemic signs such as diarrhea, anorexia, and weight loss may also be present.
All cattle are susceptible to infection by Anaplasma marginale, but the severity worsens with age increase
Causes
The two major species that cause Anaplasmosis in ruminants include Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Anaplasma marginale is found worldwide and is transmitted by Rhipicephalus ticks. Anaplasma phagocytophilum is also found worldwide, mainly transmitted by Ixodes ticks.[1] Other species that cause Anaplasmosis in specific species include:
- Cattle:
- Anaplasma centrale - found mainly in South America, Africa and the Middle East
- Sheep and goats:
- Anaplasma ovis - found worldwide. There is a prevalence of 82.9% in sheep, and 74.9% in goats. This species is the most prevalent for causing Anaplasmosis in sheep and goats, although Anaplasma phagocytophilium can also cause the disease. Anaplasma phagocytophilium has a prevalence of 11.9% in sheep, and 15.2% in goats.[2]
Morphology
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a gram-negative bacterium that does not have lipopolysaccharides or peptidoglycan. The outer membrane does not have a capsule, and is coarse with irregular periplasmic spaces. This species was originally included in the genus Ehrlichia (Ehrlichia phagocytophilium), but is now included in the genus Anaplasma (Anaplasma phagocytophilium).[1]
There are many strains of Anaplasma marginale, all with differing morphology, antigenic properties, protein sequence, and their ability to be transmitted by ticks. Major surface proteins (MSP) have been found to play a major role in the infection by Anaplasma marginale. Out of the six MSP found on this species, three of the major surface proteins do not seem to differ between all strains, those including MSP1a, MSP4, and MSP5. msp1a gene, which codes for MSP1a is used as a marker for the identification of Anaplasma marginale because it has shown to be conserved in the multiplication of rickettsia in cattle and ticks and has been shown to be involved in adhesion of to bovine erythrocytes and tick cells.[3]
Prevention
There are currently no live or killed vaccines approved by the USDA that is effective against all strains of A. marginale. There are vaccines that rely on erythrocyte-derived antigen sources to provide immunity or prevent clinical disease, although these do not prevent cattle from being infected with A. marginale. Other means of prevention can include testing all ruminants in a herd and eliminate any individuals who test positive for anaplasmosis, leading to an anaplasmosis-free herd. There are also means of vector control that can be used. Tick control is widely used in some countries, including Africa, but rarely used in the United States due to the fact that this prevention method is labor-intensive and expensive. In contrast, the control of flies is effective and there are many ways to do this. Chemical agents can be used, sanitation methods (such as cleaning stalls/pens regularly, manure management, and protecting feed), as well as biological control by natural enemies of flies (including bees, mites, parasitoids). There are also ways to prevent iatrogenic transmission, by avoiding re-using of needles, and sanitizing medical equipment between uses. Antimicrobial treatment can also be used, although it is more commonly used in the case of active infection. This includes the drugs tetracycline and imidocarb, and is used in healthy ruminants to decrease the clinical effects of an active infection.
Treatment
The most common source of treatment is the use of tetracycline drugs (including tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, rolitetracycline, doxycycline, and minocycline) and imidocarb. An injection of tetracycline drugs can give ruminants immunity to Anaplasma species for at least eight months. Imidocarb has been shown to be highly effective against Anaplasma marginale, but has been identified as a possible carcinogen and is not approved in the United States or Europe. Countries such as South Africa, Australia, Isreal, and South America have used live vaccines containing infectious Anaplasma centrale to prevent infection of Anaplasma marginale. Live vaccines are prohibited in the United States, and there has been production of vaccines comprised of nonliving Anaplasma marginale pulled from infected bovine erythrocytes, which can provide some immunity but leaves cattle susceptible to other strains of Anaplasma marginale. Supportive therapy such as blood products and fluids may be necessary.
References
- ^ a b Atif, Farhan Ahmad (2015-11-01). "Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma phagocytophilum: Rickettsiales pathogens of veterinary and public health significance". Parasitology Research. 114 (11): 3941–3957. doi:10.1007/s00436-015-4698-2. ISSN 1432-1955.
- ^ Alessandra, Torina; Santo, Caracappa (2012-08-01). "Tick-borne diseases in sheep and goats: Clinical and diagnostic aspects". Small Ruminant Research. Supplement: SIPAOC Congress 2010. 106: S6 – S11. doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2012.04.026. ISSN 0921-4488.
- ^ Aubry, P.; Geale, D. W. (2011). "A Review of Bovine Anaplasmosis". Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 58 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01173.x. ISSN 1865-1682.