Saturnian (poetry)

The tomb of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, erected around 150 BC, contains an Old Latin inscription in Saturnian metre.

Saturnian meter or verse is an old Latin and Italic poetic form, of which the principles of versification have become obscure. Only 132 complete uncontroversial verses survive. 95 literary verses and partial fragments have been preserved as quotations in later grammatical writings, as well as 37 verses in funerary or dedicatory inscriptions. The majority of literary Saturnians come from the Odysseia (more commonly known as the Odissia or Odyssia), a translation/paraphrase of Homer’s Odyssey by Livius Andronicus (ca. 3rd century B.C.), and the Bellum Poenicum, an epic on the First Punic War by Gnaeus Naevius (ca. 3rd century B.C.).

The meter was moribund by the time of the literary verses and forgotten altogether by classical times, falling out of use with the adoption of the hexameter and other Greek verse forms. Quintus Ennius is the poet who is generally credited with introducing the Greek hexameter in Latin, although the form seems to have been well on its way to domestic adoption as well in the works of his rough contemporary Plautus. These Greek verse forms were considered more sophisticated than the native tradition; Horace called the Saturnian horridus. Consequently, the poetry in this meter was not preserved. Cicero regretted the loss in his Brutus:

Atque utinam exstarent illa carmina, quae multis saeclis ante suam aetatem in epulis esse cantitata a singulis convivis de clarorum virorum laudibus in Originibus scriptum reliquit Cato.

"I heartily wish those venerable Odes were still extant, which Cato informs us in his Antiquities, used to be sung by every guest in his turn at the homely feasts of our ancestors, many ages before, to commemorate the feats of their heroes."

Ancient grammarians sought to derive the verse from a Greek model, in which syllable weight or the arrangement of light and heavy syllables was the governing principle. Scholars today remain divided between two approaches:

1. The meter was quantitative (but not borrowed from Greek).
2. The meter was accentual or based on accented and unaccented syllables.

Despite the division, there is some consensus regarding aspects of the verse’s structure. A Saturnian line can be divided into two cola or half-lines, separated by a central caesura. The second colon is shorter than or as long as the first. Furthermore, in any half-line with seven or more syllables, the last three or four are preceded by word-end. This is known as Korsch’s caesura or the caesura Korschiana, after its discoverer.

The Saturnian as Quantitative

Most—but not all—Saturnians can be captured by the following scheme:

• ∪ = light syllable
• – = heavy syllable
• ∪∪ = two light syllables that occupy the space of one heavy
• || = caesura
• ∪ over – (x at verse-end) = position can be occupied by either light or heavy syllable
• ∪∪ over – over ∪ = position can be occupied by any of the three

Examples

Numeration of literary fragments is according to Warmington’s edition; translations are also by Warmington (see bibliography infra). The translation of the Scipionic epitaph is by Dan Diffendale.

(1) Livius Andronicus, Odissia fragment 1

Virum mihī Camēna īnsece uersūtum

∪ – ∪ – || ∪ – ∪ || – ∪ ∪ – – x

‘Tell me, O Goddess of song, of the clever man’

(2) Naevius, Bellum Poenicum fragments 2–4

Postquam auem aspexit in templō Anchīsa

sacr(ā) in mēnsā Penātium ordine pōnuntur

immolābat auream victimam pulchram

– ∪ ∪ ∪ || – – ∪ || – – – – – x

∪ – – – || ∪ – (∪) – || – ∪ – – – x

– ∪ – – || – ∪ – || – ∪ – – x

’After Anchises had seen a bird within the range of view,

hallowed offerings were set in a row on the table of the Household Gods;

and he busied himself in sacrificing a beautiul golden victim.’

(3) Epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (ca. 270–150 B.C.)

                         GNAIVOD·PATRE

PROGNATVS·FORTIS·VIR·SAPIENSQVE—QVOIVS·FORMA·VIRTVTEI·PARISVMA

FVIT—CONSOL CENSOR·AIDILIS·QVEI·FVIT·APVD·VOS—TAVRASIA·CISAVNA

SAMNIO·CEPIT—SVBIGIT·OMNE·LOVCANA·OPSIDESQVE·ABDOVCIT

In regularized orthography (note the punctuation on the stone, viz. — = verse-end):

Gnaeuō patre / prōgnātus, fortis uir sapiēnsque

cuius fōrma uirtūtī parissuma / fuit

cōnsul, cēnsor, aedīlis quī fuit apud uōs

Taurāsiam, Cisaunam, / Samnium cēpit

subigit omnem Lūcānam, opsidēsque abdūcit.

– – ∪ ∪ || – – – || – – – || ∪ ∪ – x

– ∪* – ∪ || – – – || ∪ – ∪ ∪ ∪ x

– – – ∪† || – – ∪* || – ∪ ∪† ∪ –** x

– – ∪ – || ∪ – – || – ∪ – – x

∪∪ ∪ – – || – – ∪ || – ∪ – ∪ || – – x

* As in early Latin poetry, if not – as in later.

** Some early Latin poetry treats this as ∪.

† This syllable is historically –.

‘Sprung from Gnaeus his father, a man strong and wise,

whose appearance was most in keeping with his virtue,

who was consul, censor, and aedile among you,

he captured Taurasia, Cisauna, Samnium,

he subdued all Lucania and led off hostages.’

The Saturnian as Accentual

W.M. Lindsay formalizes the accentual scheme of the Saturnian as follows:

• ´ = accented syllable
• ∪ = unaccented

Handbooks otherwise schematize the verse as 3+ || 2+ stresses. This theory assumes Classical Latin accentuation. However, there is reason to believe that the Old Latin accent may have played a role in the verse. It should be noted that Lindsay himself later abandoned his theory.

Examples

Here are the same texts from above, scanned accentually.

(4) Livius Andronicus, Odissia fragment 1

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ (Old Latin)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ (Classical Latin)

(5) Naevius, Bellum Poenicum fragments 2–4

(Old Latin)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ´ ∪ ∪

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ (∪) ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ ∪

´ ∪ ` ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

(Classical Latin)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ (∪) ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

` ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

(6) Epitaph of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus

(Old Latin)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ || ´ ∪ ` ∪

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ´ ∪ ´ ∪ ´

´ ∪ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ || ´ ∪ ` ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪

(Classical Latin)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ || ` ∪ ´ ∪

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ´ ∪ ´ ∪ ´

∪ ´ ∪ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪

´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ` ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪

The Saturnian in Non-Latin Italic

Despite the obscurity of the principles of Saturnian versification in Latin, scholars have nonetheless attempted to extend analysis to other languages of ancient Italy related to Latin.

(7) Faliscan (two nearly identical inscriptions on cups from Cività, 4th century B.C.)

FOIED·VINO·(PI)PAFO·CRA·CAREFO

In Latin orthography:

foiiēd uīnom (pi)pafō. crā(s) carēfō.

– – – – (||) ∪ (∪) – || – ∪ – x (Quantitative)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ (||) ´ (∪) ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ ∪ (Accentual)

‘Today, I shall drink wine. Tomorrow, I shall go without.’

(8) Oscan (one of several similar inscriptions in Etruscoid script on vessels from Teanum, 3rd century B.C.)

minis:beriis:anei:upsatuh:sent:tiianei*

* Sabellian inscriptional texts in native orthography are conventionally transcribed in bold-face minuscule, and those in the Latin script italicized.

In Latin orthography:

Minis Beris ā(n)nei opsātō sent Teānei.

(scansion of first three words uncertain) || – – – – || ∪ – x (Quantitative)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ – ∪ – || ∪ – ∪ (Accentual)

‘ (these) were made at Teanum in Minius Berius’ (workshop?).’ (meaning of anei uncertain)

(9) Umbrian (inscription on a bronze plate from Plestia, 4th century B.C.)

cupras matres pletinas sacrụ [esu]**

** In epigraphy, graphemes transcribed with an underdot are of uncertain reading, and restorations are enclosed in square brackets.

In Latin orthography:

Cuprās Mātris Plestīnās sacrum esum.

∪ – – – || – – – || ∪ ∪ ∪ x (Quantitative)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ∪ ´ ∪ (Accentual)

‘I am a sacred object of Mother Cupra from Plestia.’ (Cupra was a Sabine goddess)

(10) Paelignian (final verse in an inscription on a stone from Corfinium, 1st century B.C.)

lifar dida uus deti hanustu herentas

In Latin orthography:

Līfar dida(t) uūs deti hanustō herentās.

– – ∪ – || – (scansion of deti uncertain) || ∪ – – ∪ – x (Quantitative)

´ ∪ ´ ∪ || ´ ´ ∪ || ∪ ´ ∪ ∪ ´ ∪ (Accentual)

‘May Liber grant you ... (good?) will ....’ (meanings of deti and hanustu unknown)

Prehistory of the Saturnian

A large number of the verses have a 4 || 3 || 3 || 3 syllable count and division, which scholars have been inclined to take as underlying or ideal. This has permitted comparison with meters from related Indo-European poetic traditions outside Italic, such as Celtic, and a few scholars have tried to trace the verse back to Proto-Indo-European. John Vigorita derived the 4 || 3 || 5-6 syllable Saturnian from:

a Proto-Indo-European 7- or 8-syllable line combined with a shorter 5- or 6-syllable line, which is itself derivable from the octosyllable by undoing truncations (noted in metrical schemes by one or more ^’s, wherever in the meter the truncation has occurred).

M.L. West schematized this subset of verses as:

which he then traces to two Proto-Indo-European octosyllables:

one giving the Saturnian’s heptasyllabic half-line by acephaly (truncation of line-beginning), the other yielding the hexasyllabic colon both by acephaly and catalexis (truncation of line-end). Ultimately, owing to the difficulties of describing and analyzing the Saturnian synchronically, attempts at reconstruction have not won acceptance.

Bibliography

In English, two collections of the texts are available. Warmington’s Loeb contains Livius Andronicus and Naevius’ Saturnians, among other poetry and poets, and Courtney’s anthology with commentary includes the Scipionic epitaphs and other inscriptions. Regarding the meter, the standard quantitative treatment is still Cole. The details of the accentual approach are set out in Lindsay. A new proposal that draws from Generative Linguistics has recently been put forward by Parsons (currently under follow-up investigation by Angelo Mercado, whose analysis is available on line). No recent treatment of non-Latin Italic material is available in English; see Costa, Morelli, and Poccetti. Vigorita and West discuss the Saturnian and its prehistory in connection with the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European meter.

• Cole, Thomas. “The Saturnian Verse.” Yale Classical Studies 21 (1969): 3–73.
• Costa, Gabriele. Sulla preistoria della tradizione poetica italica [On the Prehistory of the Italic Poetic Tradition]. Florence: Olschki, 1998.
• Courtney, Edward. MUSA LAPIDARIA: A Selection of Latin Verse Inscriptions. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1995.
• Lindsay, W.M. “The Saturnian Meter. Second Paper.” American Journal of Philology 14.3 (1893): 305–334.
• Morelli, Giussepe. “Un antico saturnio popolare falisco” [“An Ancient Popular Faliscan Saturnian”]. Archeologia Classica 25–26 (1973–74): 440–52.
• Parsons, Jed. “A New Approach to the Saturnian Verse and Its Relation to Latin Prosody.” Transactions of the American Philological Association 129 (1999): 117–137.
• Poccetti, Paolo. “Elementi culturali negli epitafi poetici peligni. III: La struttura metrica” [“Cultural Elements in the Paelignian Poetic Epitaphs. III: Metrical Structure”]. ΑΙΩΝ [AIŌN] 4 (1982): 213–36.
• Poccetti, Paolo. “Eine Spur des saturnisches Verses im Oskischen” [“A Trace of the Saturnian Verse in Oscan”]. Glotta 61 (1983): 207–17.
• Vigorita, John. Indo-European Comparative Metrics. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of California, Los Angeles, 1973.
• Warmington, E.H. Remains of Old Latin. Volume 2. Loeb Classical Library 314. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1936.
• West, M.L. “Indo-European Metre.” Glotta 51 (1973): 161–187.