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The 13th century BCE was the period from 1300 to 1201 BCE.

The world in the 13th century BCE

Events

Asia

c. 1300–1046 BCE: In China, the Shang dynasty flourishes as it settles its capital, Yin, near Anyang.^[1] Chinese settlers swarm in compact groups to create new clearing areas towards the Yangtze basin in the south, the Shanxi terraces in the northwest and the Wei River valley. The Shang then seem to frequently wage war with the still non-Sinicized populations who inhabit the Huai River valley. Graves in the form of cruciform pits have been discovered in Anyang containing chariots with their yokes, numerous bronze vases and the remains of human sacrifices, as well as the first Chinese inscriptions on oracle bones (Jiaguwen) or bronze vases.^[2] China's Shang armies are organized into infantry and archers in companies of one hundred men, supporting sections of five chariots.^[3]
c. 1300 BCE: The Aryans dominate northwest India as far as the Sarasvati River.^[4] The Vedas mention the Dasas (slaves) as their enemies. Dasas are interpreted as being a North Iranian tribe, Dahae. The Aryans are organized in tribal monarchies headed by a raja (king), who shares power with two councils or assemblies that will differentiate over time, the sabhā (court of justice) and the samiti (council of war).^[5] Only one raja is named in the Rigveda: Sudas of the Bharatas, a tribe established on the upper reaches of the Sarasvatî. He is described as the victor of the coalition of ten kings, the most powerful of which was Pûru. Subsequently, the Kurus take control of the Bharatas.^[6]
c. 1260 BCE: Lapita pottery discovered at the Bourewa site southwest of Viti Levu dates back to this period.^[7]

Middle East

c. 1350–1210 BCE: The Igihalkid dynasty in Elam. They resume the title of "Kings of Anshan and Susa".^[8]
c. 1306–1186 BCE: The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Memphis, then Pi-Ramesses, are the capitals of the New Kingdom of Egypt.^[9] It is a period of relative prosperity. During the reign of Ramesses II, the construction of the Great Hypostyle Hall of the temples of Karnak, the Luxor Temple and the temples of Abu Simbel are completed.^[10]
1307–1275 BCE: The first Assyrian mention of the Ahlamu, proto-Aramaic people, during the reign of Adad-nirari I, in the region of the north of the Euphrates. The Aramaeans, a Semitic people reported from the 14th century BCE by the archives of Amarna and then Ugarit, settled in North Mesopotamia, then in Aram (now Syria) and Lebanon where they formed kingdoms in the 11th century BC.^[11] The biblical tradition of the sons of Jacob, apparently originating from the Aram Naharayim or "Aram of the two rivers", in the loop of the Euphrates, around the towns of Harran and Nahur, seems to confirm that this region was populated by Proto-Aramaic pastors around the 13th century BC.^[12]
The Semitic tribes (including Israel) advance westward (Canaan). According to the Bible, Jacob bought his birthright from his brother Esau and then led the Israelites to Egypt at the call of his son Joseph. His twelve sons form the twelve tribes of Israel: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh), Benjamin, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Asher. Jacob's group of descendants of Aramaic origin may have left the region of Harran in Upper Mesopotamia around 1275 BCE during the Assyrian invasion of Hanigalbat, then probably entered Palestine by crossing the Jordan River between the valley of Yabboq and that of Wadi Far'ah. He settled down in the region north and northeast of Shechem. He does not mix with the locals. The group of descendants of Joseph / Israel, originally from Mount Ephraim, will stay for a while in Egypt in the land of Goshen, on the eastern edge of the Nile Delta. They would have worked on the construction of the Egyptian warehouse cities of Pithom and Pi-Ramesses.^[13] Towards the end of the century, a first group of Semites, led by Moses, would have left Egypt and merged with a second group which came more recently from Upper Mesopotamia, which also took Judaism as a revealed religion. They would have settled in the current West Bank, a sparsely populated region at the time, from which they will radiate and ally themselves with other Semitic peoples of Galilee and Transjordan.^[14]
1207 BCE: Merneptah repels attacks by northern invaders (the "Sea-Peoples") in the 8th year of his reign, according to the Great Karnak Inscription. Eric Cline closely links this event with the beginning of the Late Bronze Age collapse.^[15]

Europe

c. 1300–1200 BCE: Bronze IIIB in Greece.^[16] The Lion Gate and the Treasury of Atreus are built in Mycenae. It is a time of peace and prosperity in the Aegean. Mycenaean imports to the Levant peak. A wreck found on the southern coast of Anatolia contained ingots of copper, tin, ivory, Syrian, Cypriot and Mycenaean vases, and pieces of elephant and hippo ivory. The Acropolis of Athens is developed: towards the end of the century, a Cyclopean wall four to six meters thick, known as the “pelasgic wall” (Pelargikon), is constructed, as well as a well to supply the citadel with water.^[17] Linear B tablets are created in Pylos.^[18]
c. 1300–1200 BCE: Approximately 4,000 men fight a battle at a causeway over the Tollense valley in Northern Germany, the largest known prehistoric battle north of the Alps.^[19]
c. 1300–500 BCE: The Lusatian culture in Poland, parts of the Czech Republic and Slovakia, eastern Germany and northern Ukraine.^[20]
c. 1250–850 BCE: The Urnfield culture, characterized by vast cemeteries housing urns with the ashes of the deceased and offerings, marks the Late Bronze Age in Western Europe.^[21]
c. 1250–1000 BCE: The culture of Pantalica develops inland in Sicily.^[22]
1225–1190 BCE: Late Helladic IIIB2 in mainland Greece.^[23] The perimeters of the defense systems of the Mycenaean palaces (Mycenae, Tiryns, Midea) are widely extended, a sign that insecurity is increasing. The end of the period was marked by widespread destruction on most sites: Mycenae, Tyrinth, Midéa, Thebes, Orchomenus, Dimini, and Pylos, whose unfortified palaces have not been rebuilt.^[24]

Sovereign states

List of sovereign states in the 13th century BC.

References

^ San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China. The Other Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-983-9541-88-5.
^ Soutif, Michel (2012). L'Asie, source de sciences et de techniques. EDP Sciences. p. 33. ISBN 978-2-7598-0125-1.
^ Gabriel, Richard A. (2002). The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-275-97809-9.
^ Daniélou, Alain (1983). Histoire de l'Inde. Fayard. p. 223. ISBN 978-2-213-63953-6.
^ Masson-Oursel, Paul; Stern, Philippe; de Willman-Grabowska, H (2012). L'Inde antique et la civilisation indienne. Éditions Albin Michel. p. 88. ISBN 978-2-226-26086-4.
^ Boivin, Michel (2015). Histoire de l'Inde. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 8. ISBN 978-2-13-073032-3.
^ Gross, Jeffrey L. (2017). Waipi’O Valley. Vol. 1. Xlibris Corporation. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-5245-3905-4.
^ Berghe, Louis Vanden (1983). Reliefs rupestres de l'Irān ancien : Bruxelles, Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire, 26 octobre 1983-29 janvier 1984. Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire. p. 25.
^ Margueron, Jean-Claude (2012). Le Proche-Orient et l'Égypte antiques. Hachette Éducation Technique. p. 384. ISBN 978-2-01-140096-3.
^ Barral I Altet, Xavier (2013). Histoire de l'art. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 19. ISBN 978-2-13-062338-0.
^ Clutton-Brock, Juliet (2014). The Walking Larder : Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-317-59838-1.
^ Lemaire, André. "Les Araméens, un peuple, une langue, une écriture, au-delà des empires". www.clio.fr.
^ Lemaire, André (2018). Histoire du peuple hébreu. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 9. ISBN 978-2-13-081069-8.
^ Frédéric, Encel. Comprendre le Proche-Orient. Éditions Bréal. p. 137. ISBN 978-2-7495-2074-2.
^ Cline, Eric. 1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed [video], 2016, 1h10'17. See 5'41-6'19 for the invasion of the Sea People in the 5th yr of Merneptah's reign and the 8th year of Ramses III's, and 4'30 for the start of the Late Bronze Age collapse "on either side of 1200 BC".
^ Baurain, Claude (1997). Les Grecs et la Méditerranée orientale : des siècles "obscurs" à la fin de l'époque archaïque. Presses universitaires de France. p. 60.
^ Étienne, Roland (2004). Athènes, espaces urbains et histoire. Hachette. p. 23. ISBN 978-2-01-181444-9.
^ L’Europe au temps d’Ulysse. RMN - Grand Palais. 1999. p. 234. ISBN 978-2-7118-6293-1.
^ Curry, Andrew (24 March 2016). "Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle". Science. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
^ Price, T. Douglas (2015). Ancient Scandinavia. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-19-023198-9.
^ Gimbutas, Marija (1965). Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe. De Gruyter. p. 245. ISBN 978-3-11-166814-7.
^ Leighton, Robert (1999). Sicily Before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age. Cornell University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-8014-8585-5.
^ Brunet, Olivier (2016). Les marqueurs archéologiques du pouvoir. Publications de la Sorbonne. p. 28. ISBN 979-10-351-0005-6.
^ Demoule, Jean-Paul; Garcia, Dominique; Schnapp, Alain (2018). Une histoire des civilisations (in French). La Découverte. p. 319. ISBN 978-2-7071-8878-6.

[1] San, Tan Koon (2014). Dynastic China. The Other Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-983-9541-88-5.

[2] Soutif, Michel (2012). L'Asie, source de sciences et de techniques. EDP Sciences. p. 33. ISBN 978-2-7598-0125-1.

[3] Gabriel, Richard A. (2002). The Great Armies of Antiquity. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-275-97809-9.

[4] Daniélou, Alain (1983). Histoire de l'Inde. Fayard. p. 223. ISBN 978-2-213-63953-6.

[5] Masson-Oursel, Paul; Stern, Philippe; de Willman-Grabowska, H (2012). L'Inde antique et la civilisation indienne. Éditions Albin Michel. p. 88. ISBN 978-2-226-26086-4.

[Boivin-6] Boivin, Michel (2015). Histoire de l'Inde. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 8. ISBN 978-2-13-073032-3.

[7] Gross, Jeffrey L. (2017). Waipi’O Valley. Vol. 1. Xlibris Corporation. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-5245-3905-4.

[8] Berghe, Louis Vanden (1983). Reliefs rupestres de l'Irān ancien : Bruxelles, Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire, 26 octobre 1983-29 janvier 1984. Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire. p. 25.

[Margueron-9] Margueron, Jean-Claude (2012). Le Proche-Orient et l'Égypte antiques. Hachette Éducation Technique. p. 384. ISBN 978-2-01-140096-3.

[10] Barral I Altet, Xavier (2013). Histoire de l'art. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 19. ISBN 978-2-13-062338-0.

[11] Clutton-Brock, Juliet (2014). The Walking Larder : Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-317-59838-1.

[12] Lemaire, André. "Les Araméens, un peuple, une langue, une écriture, au-delà des empires". www.clio.fr.

[13] Lemaire, André (2018). Histoire du peuple hébreu. Presses Universitaires de France. p. 9. ISBN 978-2-13-081069-8.

[14] Frédéric, Encel. Comprendre le Proche-Orient. Éditions Bréal. p. 137. ISBN 978-2-7495-2074-2.

[15] Cline, Eric. 1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed [video], 2016, 1h10'17. See 5'41-6'19 for the invasion of the Sea People in the 5th yr of Merneptah's reign and the 8th year of Ramses III's, and 4'30 for the start of the Late Bronze Age collapse "on either side of 1200 BC".

[16] Baurain, Claude (1997). Les Grecs et la Méditerranée orientale : des siècles "obscurs" à la fin de l'époque archaïque. Presses universitaires de France. p. 60.

[17] Étienne, Roland (2004). Athènes, espaces urbains et histoire. Hachette. p. 23. ISBN 978-2-01-181444-9.

[18] L’Europe au temps d’Ulysse. RMN - Grand Palais. 1999. p. 234. ISBN 978-2-7118-6293-1.

[19] Curry, Andrew (24 March 2016). "Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle". Science. Retrieved 11 March 2017.

[20] Price, T. Douglas (2015). Ancient Scandinavia. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-19-023198-9.

[Gimbutas-21] Gimbutas, Marija (1965). Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe. De Gruyter. p. 245. ISBN 978-3-11-166814-7.

[22] Leighton, Robert (1999). Sicily Before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age. Cornell University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-8014-8585-5.

[Brunet-23] Brunet, Olivier (2016). Les marqueurs archéologiques du pouvoir. Publications de la Sorbonne. p. 28. ISBN 979-10-351-0005-6.

[Demoule-24] Demoule, Jean-Paul; Garcia, Dominique; Schnapp, Alain (2018). Une histoire des civilisations (in French). La Découverte. p. 319. ISBN 978-2-7071-8878-6.

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@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
 ==Events==
 ===Asia===
-* c. 1300–1046 BC: In China, the [[Shang dynasty]] flourishes as it settles its capital, [[Yinxu|Yin]], near [[Anyang]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Tan Koon |last=San |title=Dynastic China |publisher=The Other Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-983-9541-88-5 |page=17}}</ref> Chinese settlers swarm in compact groups to create new clearing areas towards the [[Yangtze]] basin in the south, the [[Shanxi]] terraces in the northwest and the [[Wei River]] valley. The Shang then seem to frequently wage war with the still non-Sinicized populations who inhabit the [[Huai River]] valley. Graves in the form of cruciform pits have been discovered in Anyang containing [[Chariots in ancient China|chariots]] with their yokes, numerous bronze vases and the remains of human sacrifices, as well as the first [[Oracle bone script|Chinese inscriptions]] on [[oracle bone]]s (''Jiaguwen'') or bronze vases.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Michel |last=Soutif |title=L'Asie, source de sciences et de techniques |publisher=[[EDP Sciences]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-7598-0125-1 |page=33}}</ref> China's Shang armies are organized into infantry and archers in companies of one hundred men, supporting sections of five chariots.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Richard A. |last=Gabriel |title=The Great Armies of Antiquity |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-275-97809-9 |page=143}}</ref>
+* c. 1300–1046 BCE: In China, the [[Shang dynasty]] flourishes as it settles its capital, [[Yinxu|Yin]], near [[Anyang]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Tan Koon |last=San |title=Dynastic China |publisher=The Other Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-983-9541-88-5 |page=17}}</ref> Chinese settlers swarm in compact groups to create new clearing areas towards the [[Yangtze]] basin in the south, the [[Shanxi]] terraces in the northwest and the [[Wei River]] valley. The Shang then seem to frequently wage war with the still non-Sinicized populations who inhabit the [[Huai River]] valley. Graves in the form of cruciform pits have been discovered in Anyang containing [[Chariots in ancient China|chariots]] with their yokes, numerous bronze vases and the remains of human sacrifices, as well as the first [[Oracle bone script|Chinese inscriptions]] on [[oracle bone]]s (''Jiaguwen'') or bronze vases.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Michel |last=Soutif |title=L'Asie, source de sciences et de techniques |publisher=[[EDP Sciences]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-7598-0125-1 |page=33}}</ref> China's Shang armies are organized into infantry and archers in companies of one hundred men, supporting sections of five chariots.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Richard A. |last=Gabriel |title=The Great Armies of Antiquity |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-275-97809-9 |page=143}}</ref>
-* c. 1300 BC: The [[Aryan]]s dominate northwest India as far as the [[Sarasvati River]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Alain |last=Daniélou |title=Histoire de l'Inde |publisher=[[Fayard]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-2-213-63953-6 |page=223}}</ref> The [[Vedas]] mention the ''[[Dasa]]s'' (slaves) as their enemies. Dasas are interpreted as being a North [[Iran|Iranian tribe]], Dahae. The Aryans are organized in tribal monarchies headed by a [[raja]] (king), who shares power with two councils or assemblies that will differentiate over time, the sabhā (court of justice) and the samiti (council of war).<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Masson-Oursel |first2=Philippe |last2=Stern |first3=H |last3=de Willman-Grabowska |title=L'Inde antique et la civilisation indienne |publisher=[[Éditions Albin Michel]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-226-26086-4 |page=88}}</ref> Only one raja is named in the [[Rigveda]]: [[Sudas]] of the [[Bharatas (tribe)|Bharatas]], a tribe established on the upper reaches of the Sarasvatî. He is described as the victor of the coalition of ten kings, the most powerful of which was Pûru. Subsequently, the Kurus take control of the Bharatas.<ref name="Boivin">{{Cite book |first=Michel |last=Boivin |title=Histoire de l'Inde |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2015 |isbn=978-2-13-073032-3 |page=8}}</ref>
+* c. 1300 BCE: The [[Aryan]]s dominate northwest India as far as the [[Sarasvati River]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Alain |last=Daniélou |title=Histoire de l'Inde |publisher=[[Fayard]] |year=1983 |isbn=978-2-213-63953-6 |page=223}}</ref> The [[Vedas]] mention the ''[[Dasa]]s'' (slaves) as their enemies. Dasas are interpreted as being a North [[Iran|Iranian tribe]], Dahae. The Aryans are organized in tribal monarchies headed by a [[raja]] (king), who shares power with two councils or assemblies that will differentiate over time, the sabhā (court of justice) and the samiti (council of war).<ref>{{Cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Masson-Oursel |first2=Philippe |last2=Stern |first3=H |last3=de Willman-Grabowska |title=L'Inde antique et la civilisation indienne |publisher=[[Éditions Albin Michel]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-226-26086-4 |page=88}}</ref> Only one raja is named in the [[Rigveda]]: [[Sudas]] of the [[Bharatas (tribe)|Bharatas]], a tribe established on the upper reaches of the Sarasvatî. He is described as the victor of the coalition of ten kings, the most powerful of which was Pûru. Subsequently, the Kurus take control of the Bharatas.<ref name="Boivin">{{Cite book |first=Michel |last=Boivin |title=Histoire de l'Inde |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2015 |isbn=978-2-13-073032-3 |page=8}}</ref>
-* c. 1260 BC: [[Lapita culture|Lapita]] pottery discovered at the Bourewa site southwest of [[Viti Levu]] dates back to this period.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Jeffrey L. |last=Gross |title=Waipi’O Valley |volume=1 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5245-3905-4 |page=221}}</ref>
+* c. 1260 BCE: [[Lapita culture|Lapita]] pottery discovered at the Bourewa site southwest of [[Viti Levu]] dates back to this period.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Jeffrey L. |last=Gross |title=Waipi’O Valley |volume=1 |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-5245-3905-4 |page=221}}</ref>
 ===Middle East===
-* c. 1350–1210 BC: The Igihalkid dynasty in [[Elam]]. They resume the title of "Kings of Anshan and Susa".<ref>{{Cite book |first=Louis Vanden |last=Berghe |title=Reliefs rupestres de l'Irān ancien : Bruxelles, Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire, 26 octobre 1983-29 janvier 1984 |publisher=Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire |year=1983 |page=25}}</ref>
+* c. 1350–1210 BCE: The Igihalkid dynasty in [[Elam]]. They resume the title of "Kings of Anshan and Susa".<ref>{{Cite book |first=Louis Vanden |last=Berghe |title=Reliefs rupestres de l'Irān ancien : Bruxelles, Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire, 26 octobre 1983-29 janvier 1984 |publisher=Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire |year=1983 |page=25}}</ref>
-* c. 1306–1186 BC: The [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt]]. [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], then [[Pi-Ramesses]], are the capitals of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]].<ref name="Margueron">{{Cite book |first=Jean-Claude |last=Margueron |title=Le Proche-Orient et l'Égypte antiques |publisher=Hachette Éducation Technique |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-01-140096-3 |page=384}}</ref> It is a period of relative prosperity. During the reign of [[Ramesses II]], the construction of the [[Great Hypostyle Hall]] of the temples of [[Karnak]], the [[Luxor Temple]] and the temples of [[Abu Simbel]] are completed.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Xavier |last=Barral I Altet |title=Histoire de l'art |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2013 |isbn=978-2-13-062338-0 |page=19}}</ref>
+* c. 1306–1186 BCE: The [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt]]. [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], then [[Pi-Ramesses]], are the capitals of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]].<ref name="Margueron">{{Cite book |first=Jean-Claude |last=Margueron |title=Le Proche-Orient et l'Égypte antiques |publisher=Hachette Éducation Technique |year=2012 |isbn=978-2-01-140096-3 |page=384}}</ref> It is a period of relative prosperity. During the reign of [[Ramesses II]], the construction of the [[Great Hypostyle Hall]] of the temples of [[Karnak]], the [[Luxor Temple]] and the temples of [[Abu Simbel]] are completed.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Xavier |last=Barral I Altet |title=Histoire de l'art |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2013 |isbn=978-2-13-062338-0 |page=19}}</ref>
-* 1307–1275 BC: The first Assyrian mention of the ''Ahlamu'', proto-[[Aramaic]] people, during the reign of [[Adad-nirari I]], in the region of the north of the Euphrates. The Aramaeans, a Semitic people reported from the 14th century BC by the [[Amarna letters|archives]] of [[Amarna]] and then [[Ugarit]], settled in North [[Mesopotamia]], then in [[Aram (region)|Aram]] (now [[Syria]]) and [[Lebanon]] where they formed kingdoms in the [[11th century BC]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Juliet |last=Clutton-Brock |title=The Walking Larder : Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-59838-1 |page=133}}</ref> The biblical tradition of the sons of Jacob, apparently originating from the Aram Naharayim or "Aram of the two rivers", in the loop of the Euphrates, around the towns of [[Harran]] and Nahur, seems to confirm that this region was populated by Proto-Aramaic pastors around the 13th century BC.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/les_arameens_un_peuple_une_langue_une_ecriture_au_dela_des_empires.asp |title=Les Araméens, un peuple, une langue, une écriture, au-delà des empires |first=André |last=Lemaire |website=www.clio.fr}}</ref>
+* 1307–1275 BCE: The first Assyrian mention of the ''Ahlamu'', proto-[[Aramaic]] people, during the reign of [[Adad-nirari I]], in the region of the north of the Euphrates. The Aramaeans, a Semitic people reported from the 14th century BCE by the [[Amarna letters|archives]] of [[Amarna]] and then [[Ugarit]], settled in North [[Mesopotamia]], then in [[Aram (region)|Aram]] (now [[Syria]]) and [[Lebanon]] where they formed kingdoms in the [[11th century BC]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Juliet |last=Clutton-Brock |title=The Walking Larder : Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-59838-1 |page=133}}</ref> The biblical tradition of the sons of Jacob, apparently originating from the Aram Naharayim or "Aram of the two rivers", in the loop of the Euphrates, around the towns of [[Harran]] and Nahur, seems to confirm that this region was populated by Proto-Aramaic pastors around the 13th century BC.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.clio.fr/BIBLIOTHEQUE/les_arameens_un_peuple_une_langue_une_ecriture_au_dela_des_empires.asp |title=Les Araméens, un peuple, une langue, une écriture, au-delà des empires |first=André |last=Lemaire |website=www.clio.fr}}</ref>
-* The Semitic tribes (including [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|Israel]]) advance westward ([[Canaan]]). According to the [[Bible]], [[Jacob]] bought his birthright from his brother [[Esau]] and then led the Israelites to [[Egypt]] at the call of his son [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]]. His twelve sons form the twelve tribes of Israel: [[Tribe of Reuben|Reuben]], [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]], [[Tribe of Levi|Levi]], [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]], [[Tribe of Issachar|Issachar]], [[Tribe of Zebulun|Zebulun]], [[Tribe of Joseph|Joseph]] ([[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraim]] and [[Tribe of Manasseh|Manasseh]]), [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]], [[Tribe of Dan|Dan]], [[Tribe of Naphtali|Naphtali]], [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]], and [[Tribe of Asher|Asher]]. Jacob's group of descendants of Aramaic origin may have left the region of Harran in Upper Mesopotamia around [[1275 BC]] during the Assyrian invasion of Hanigalbat, then probably entered [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] by crossing the [[Jordan River]] between the valley of [[Zarqa River|Yabboq]] and that of Wadi Far'ah. He settled down in the region north and northeast of [[Nablus|Shechem]]. He does not mix with the locals. The group of descendants of Joseph / Israel, originally from [[Mount Ephraim]], will stay for a while in Egypt in the land of Goshen, on the eastern edge of the [[Nile Delta]]. They would have worked on the construction of the Egyptian warehouse cities of [[Pithom]] and Pi-Ramesses.<ref>{{Cite book |first=André |last=Lemaire |title=Histoire du peuple hébreu |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2018 |isbn=978-2-13-081069-8 |page=9}}</ref> Towards the end of the century, a first group of Semites, led by [[Moses]], would have [[The Exodus|left Egypt]] and merged with a second group which came more recently from Upper Mesopotamia, which also took [[Judaism]] as a revealed religion. They would have settled in the current [[West Bank]], a sparsely populated region at the time, from which they will radiate and ally themselves with other Semitic peoples of [[Galilee]] and [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Encel |last=Frédéric |title=Comprendre le Proche-Orient |publisher=Éditions Bréal |isbn=978-2-7495-2074-2 |page=137}}</ref>
+* The Semitic tribes (including [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|Israel]]) advance westward ([[Canaan]]). According to the [[Bible]], [[Jacob]] bought his birthright from his brother [[Esau]] and then led the Israelites to [[Egypt]] at the call of his son [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]]. His twelve sons form the twelve tribes of Israel: [[Tribe of Reuben|Reuben]], [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]], [[Tribe of Levi|Levi]], [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]], [[Tribe of Issachar|Issachar]], [[Tribe of Zebulun|Zebulun]], [[Tribe of Joseph|Joseph]] ([[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraim]] and [[Tribe of Manasseh|Manasseh]]), [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]], [[Tribe of Dan|Dan]], [[Tribe of Naphtali|Naphtali]], [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]], and [[Tribe of Asher|Asher]]. Jacob's group of descendants of Aramaic origin may have left the region of Harran in Upper Mesopotamia around [[1275 BCE]] during the Assyrian invasion of Hanigalbat, then probably entered [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] by crossing the [[Jordan River]] between the valley of [[Zarqa River|Yabboq]] and that of Wadi Far'ah. He settled down in the region north and northeast of [[Nablus|Shechem]]. He does not mix with the locals. The group of descendants of Joseph / Israel, originally from [[Mount Ephraim]], will stay for a while in Egypt in the land of Goshen, on the eastern edge of the [[Nile Delta]]. They would have worked on the construction of the Egyptian warehouse cities of [[Pithom]] and Pi-Ramesses.<ref>{{Cite book |first=André |last=Lemaire |title=Histoire du peuple hébreu |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=2018 |isbn=978-2-13-081069-8 |page=9}}</ref> Towards the end of the century, a first group of Semites, led by [[Moses]], would have [[The Exodus|left Egypt]] and merged with a second group which came more recently from Upper Mesopotamia, which also took [[Judaism]] as a revealed religion. They would have settled in the current [[West Bank]], a sparsely populated region at the time, from which they will radiate and ally themselves with other Semitic peoples of [[Galilee]] and [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Encel |last=Frédéric |title=Comprendre le Proche-Orient |publisher=Éditions Bréal |isbn=978-2-7495-2074-2 |page=137}}</ref>
-* [[1207 BC]]: [[Merneptah]] repels attacks by northern invaders (the "[[Sea Peoples|Sea-Peoples]]") in the 8th year of his reign, according to the [[Great Karnak Inscription]]. [[Eric H. Cline|Eric Cline]] closely links this event with the beginning of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]].<ref>[[Eric H. Cline|Cline, Eric]]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRcu-ysocX4 ''1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed''] [video], 2016, 1h10'17. See 5'41-6'19 for the invasion of the Sea People in the 5th yr of [[Merneptah]]'s reign and the 8th year of [[Ramses III]]'s, and 4'30 for the start of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] "on either side of 1200 BC".</ref>
+* [[1207 BCE]]: [[Merneptah]] repels attacks by northern invaders (the "[[Sea Peoples|Sea-Peoples]]") in the 8th year of his reign, according to the [[Great Karnak Inscription]]. [[Eric H. Cline|Eric Cline]] closely links this event with the beginning of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]].<ref>[[Eric H. Cline|Cline, Eric]]. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bRcu-ysocX4 ''1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed''] [video], 2016, 1h10'17. See 5'41-6'19 for the invasion of the Sea People in the 5th yr of [[Merneptah]]'s reign and the 8th year of [[Ramses III]]'s, and 4'30 for the start of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] "on either side of 1200 BC".</ref>
 ===Europe===
-* c. 1300–1200 BC: [[Aegean civilization|Bronze IIIB]] in [[Greece]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Claude |last=Baurain |title=Les Grecs et la Méditerranée orientale : des siècles "obscurs" à la fin de l'époque archaïque |publisher=[[Presses universitaires de France]] |year=1997 |page=60}}</ref> The [[Lion Gate]] and the [[Treasury of Atreus]] are built in [[Mycenae]]. It is a time of peace and prosperity in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]]. Mycenaean imports to the Levant peak. A [[Uluburun shipwreck|wreck]] found on the southern coast of [[Anatolia]] contained ingots of copper, tin, ivory, Syrian, Cypriot and Mycenaean vases, and pieces of elephant and hippo ivory. The [[Acropolis of Athens]] is developed: towards the end of the century, a [[Cyclopean masonry|Cyclopean wall]] four to six meters thick, known as the “pelasgic wall” (''Pelargikon''), is constructed, as well as a well to supply the citadel with water.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Roland |last=Étienne |title=Athènes, espaces urbains et histoire |publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-2-01-181444-9 |page=23}}</ref> [[Linear B]] tablets are created in [[Pylos]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=L’Europe au temps d’Ulysse. |publisher=RMN - Grand Palais |year=1999 |isbn=978-2-7118-6293-1 |page=234}}</ref>
+* c. 1300–1200 BCE: [[Aegean civilization|Bronze IIIB]] in [[Greece]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Claude |last=Baurain |title=Les Grecs et la Méditerranée orientale : des siècles "obscurs" à la fin de l'époque archaïque |publisher=[[Presses universitaires de France]] |year=1997 |page=60}}</ref> The [[Lion Gate]] and the [[Treasury of Atreus]] are built in [[Mycenae]]. It is a time of peace and prosperity in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]]. Mycenaean imports to the Levant peak. A [[Uluburun shipwreck|wreck]] found on the southern coast of [[Anatolia]] contained ingots of copper, tin, ivory, Syrian, Cypriot and Mycenaean vases, and pieces of elephant and hippo ivory. The [[Acropolis of Athens]] is developed: towards the end of the century, a [[Cyclopean masonry|Cyclopean wall]] four to six meters thick, known as the “pelasgic wall” (''Pelargikon''), is constructed, as well as a well to supply the citadel with water.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Roland |last=Étienne |title=Athènes, espaces urbains et histoire |publisher=[[Hachette (publisher)|Hachette]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-2-01-181444-9 |page=23}}</ref> [[Linear B]] tablets are created in [[Pylos]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=L’Europe au temps d’Ulysse. |publisher=RMN - Grand Palais |year=1999 |isbn=978-2-7118-6293-1 |page=234}}</ref>
-*c. 1300–1200 BC: Approximately 4,000 men fight a [[Tollense valley battlefield|battle at a causeway over the Tollense valley]] in Northern Germany, the largest known prehistoric battle north of the Alps.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Curry|first1=Andrew|title=Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/slaughter-bridge-uncovering-colossal-bronze-age-battle|website=Science|access-date=11 March 2017|date=24 March 2016}}</ref>
+*c. 1300–1200 BCE: Approximately 4,000 men fight a [[Tollense valley battlefield|battle at a causeway over the Tollense valley]] in Northern Germany, the largest known prehistoric battle north of the Alps.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Curry|first1=Andrew|title=Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/slaughter-bridge-uncovering-colossal-bronze-age-battle|website=Science|access-date=11 March 2017|date=24 March 2016}}</ref>
-* c. 1300–500 BC: The [[Lusatian culture]] in [[Poland]], parts of the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], eastern [[Germany]] and northern [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=T. Douglas |last=Price |title=Ancient Scandinavia |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-023198-9 |page=212}}</ref>
+* c. 1300–500 BCE: The [[Lusatian culture]] in [[Poland]], parts of the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], eastern [[Germany]] and northern [[Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=T. Douglas |last=Price |title=Ancient Scandinavia |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-023198-9 |page=212}}</ref>
-* c. 1250–850 BC: The [[Urnfield culture]], characterized by vast cemeteries housing urns with the ashes of the deceased and offerings, marks the Late Bronze Age in Western Europe.<ref name="Gimbutas">{{Cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |title=Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |year=1965 |isbn=978-3-11-166814-7 |page=245}}</ref>
+* c. 1250–850 BCE: The [[Urnfield culture]], characterized by vast cemeteries housing urns with the ashes of the deceased and offerings, marks the Late Bronze Age in Western Europe.<ref name="Gimbutas">{{Cite book |last=Gimbutas |first=Marija |author-link=Marija Gimbutas |title=Bronze Age cultures in Central and Eastern Europe |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |year=1965 |isbn=978-3-11-166814-7 |page=245}}</ref>
-* c. 1250–1000 BC: The culture of [[Necropolis of Pantalica|Pantalica]] develops inland in [[Sicily]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Leighton |title=Sicily Before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8014-8585-5 |page=150}}</ref>
+* c. 1250–1000 BCE: The culture of [[Necropolis of Pantalica|Pantalica]] develops inland in [[Sicily]].<ref>{{Cite book |first=Robert |last=Leighton |title=Sicily Before History: An Archaeological Survey from the Palaeolithic to the Iron Age |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8014-8585-5 |page=150}}</ref>
-* 1225–1190 BC: [[Helladic chronology|Late Helladic IIIB2]] in mainland Greece.<ref name="Brunet">{{Cite book |first=Olivier |last=Brunet |title=Les marqueurs archéologiques du pouvoir |publisher=Publications de la Sorbonne |year=2016 |isbn=979-10-351-0005-6 |page=28}}</ref> The perimeters of the defense systems of the Mycenaean palaces ([[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]], [[Midea (Argolid)|Midea]]) are widely extended, a sign that insecurity is increasing. The end of the period was marked by widespread destruction on most sites: Mycenae, Tyrinth, Midéa, [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenus]], [[Dimini]], and [[Pylos]], whose unfortified palaces have not been rebuilt.<ref name="Demoule">{{Cite book |language=fr |first1=Jean-Paul |last1=Demoule |first2=Dominique |last2=Garcia |first3=Alain |last3=Schnapp |title=Une histoire des civilisations |publisher=La Découverte |year=2018 |isbn=978-2-7071-8878-6 |page=319}}</ref>
+* 1225–1190 BCE: [[Helladic chronology|Late Helladic IIIB2]] in mainland Greece.<ref name="Brunet">{{Cite book |first=Olivier |last=Brunet |title=Les marqueurs archéologiques du pouvoir |publisher=Publications de la Sorbonne |year=2016 |isbn=979-10-351-0005-6 |page=28}}</ref> The perimeters of the defense systems of the Mycenaean palaces ([[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]], [[Midea (Argolid)|Midea]]) are widely extended, a sign that insecurity is increasing. The end of the period was marked by widespread destruction on most sites: Mycenae, Tyrinth, Midéa, [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenus]], [[Dimini]], and [[Pylos]], whose unfortified palaces have not been rebuilt.<ref name="Demoule">{{Cite book |language=fr |first1=Jean-Paul |last1=Demoule |first2=Dominique |last2=Garcia |first3=Alain |last3=Schnapp |title=Une histoire des civilisations |publisher=La Découverte |year=2018 |isbn=978-2-7071-8878-6 |page=319}}</ref>
 ==Sovereign states==