Warfare in Sumer: Difference between revisions
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'''Warfare in Sumer''' predominatly consisted of small-scale conflicts between nearby [[List of cities of the ancient Near East|city-states]]. [[Sumer]]ian armies consisted of [[bronze]]-armoured soldiers armed with various weapons, including [[spear]]s, [[sword]]s and [[Khopesh|sickle-swords]], engaging each other in [[phalanx]]-like formations. When [[Siege|besieging]] cities, [[battering ram]]s and [[sapper]]s would be used to breach the defences; on the open battlefield, chariots were also used. Most wars were fought because of inter-city state rivalries, or for wealth, resources, and prestige. Military victories were later glorified in [[Art of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian art]] — a major source of historical information.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=DK|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpRT7qBPDAwC&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq|date=2012-04-16|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-4654-0373-5|language=en}}</ref> |
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== Logistics and tactics == |
== Logistics and tactics == |
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Revision as of 02:06, 6 March 2022
Warfare in Sumer predominatly consisted of small-scale conflicts between nearby city-states. Sumerian armies consisted of bronze-armoured soldiers armed with various weapons, including spears, swords and sickle-swords, engaging each other in phalanx-like formations. When besieging cities, battering rams and sappers would be used to breach the defences; on the open battlefield, chariots were also used. Most wars were fought because of inter-city state rivalries, or for wealth, resources, and prestige. Military victories were later glorified in Mesopotamian art — a major source of historical information.[1]
Logistics and tactics
It is known that during the Early Dynastic Period there was an increasing amount of wars between rival Sumerian city-states. These wars were very small scale. The cities of Umma and Lagash, who fought many wars against each other are only 25 miles apart. The war that took place over the longest distance was a war between Kish and Elam. The distance between Kish and Elam was 160 miles. Most battles took place only a few days march from the city-states each army belonged to.[2] Modern Historians know very little about the tactics of Sumerian armies because records glorify victories, but rarely talk about how the battle was fought.[3] Sumerian soldiers would besiege cities using battering rams and sappers while the defenders used towers.[4] Although the walls of some ancient Sumerian cities may have not served as defensive fortifications. Their main purpose may have been protecting cities from wild animals and floods, as well as demonstrating the power and wealth of a settlement. Eventually these cities would start to use walls as defensive formations.[4] In the 13th century BCE moats become popular defensive fortifications.[4] Once a city was captured its walls were destroyed in order to humiliate the city. The city was also looted and some or all of its inhabitants would be captured and often enslaved. The victor would dedicate the spoils of war to the patron deity of their city.[4]
Causes for war
One common cause for war was rivalries between city states. For example, Umma and Lagash waged several wars against each other. The cities of Ur, Uruk, and Kish were all rivals. Some wars may have started when one city tried to conquer or control another. One example is when king Agga of Kish attempted to get Gilgamesh, king of Uruk to submit to Kish. In response, Gilgamesh went to war with Kish. Many cities states formed military alliances to defend against raiding and invasion. Records show that some wars started for resources and trade routes.[3] Trade routes important because resources such as stone and wood were needed to construct cities. King Meskiaggasher fought wars in the Zagros Mountains for timber, metal, and stone. Sumerian myths wars against the mythical kingdom of Aratta most likely represent real campaigns in Iran for Lapis Lazuli and tin.[2] Elamites and Gutians would often raid the city-states' vital supply routes.[4] Victory in war brought prestige and wealth to the king of the victorious city.[1] Over time the populations of cities grew, while the populations of villages shrank. It is possible the reason why is because inhabitants of villages migrated to the cities, possibly because the cities provided greater protection. Implying that there was increasing warfare in Sumer.
Armies
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During the Uruk Period of Sumerian history city-states that had kings capable for forming armies began forming. The increasing specialization of jobs in Sumer also created new military professions. The armies of Sumer could have thousands of soldiers, some city states could field armies five thousand or six thousand men strong.[4] These large armies would consist of many military units. One military unit known as the Nu-Banda contained 60-100 men. Larger units would be made by combining the smaller units. Other known units include the Shub-Lugal. The Shub-Lugal would serve as household troops. They made up the majority of Sargon's army. Some soldiers were called Niksum. These soldiers were given plots of land. Skirmishers were called Nim which meant "flies." Sargon of Akkad gave his generals the title of Sagi-mah or Chief Cup bearer. Units with spears would be organized into close order formations. To support the main army there would be light infantry equipped with javelins and bows. The armies also consisted of chariots and soldiers.[3] The chariots had four small wagon like wheels and sides that rise to chest height. Each chariot has a crew of two soldiers. One of these is the driver, while the other is a soldier. The chariots could have been pulled by donkeys, mules, or crossbreeds. Horses would not be used and may have been too expensive to risk in combat.[4]
Weapons and armor
In Sumer soldiers were well trained and equipped. Archaeological studies show that the Sumerians used war-carts and iron and bronze weapons.[4] Such weapons were maces, sickle swords, spears, slings, javelins, clubs, knives, swords, shields, and axes. However, most soldiers used axes, daggers, and spears.[1] Armor included copper and bronze helmets, as well as bronze armor and cloaks studded in metal discs. The oldest known helmet ever, the Golden Wig. It was made of beaten and engraved gold with a wadded linen line. Bronze and Copper alloy helmets dating back to 2500 BCE.[5] By 2100 BCE, bronze scale armor had developed. Depictions of light infantrymen show them without armor, only wearing skirts often adorned in feathers. Sumerian soldiers used basic bows before the Akkadian Empire, as Sargon's empire spread the composite bow throughout Mesopotamia. It is likely the bow was given to the Akkadians by nomadic peoples. The bow was a very important part of Mesopotamian battlefields, and many soldiers used bows.[3][6]
Depictions
Depictions of warfare are a common theme in Mesopotamian art. Oftentimes the art would celebrate and glorify a military victory. Usually it would be commissioned by the victor themselves. Some notable examples of this are the Royal Standard of Ur and the Steele of the Vultures. The Royal Standard of Ur depicts chariots and soldiers led by the king of Ur marching over the corpses of their enemy. While cloaked soldiers drag prisoners of war behind them. The Steele of Vultures depicts the King of Lagash winning a battle over the King of Umma. On the steele is a depiction of soldiers with high spears and interlocking spears marching. Other fragments of the steele show vultures clutching the severed heads of the soldiers from Umma. The steele also shows the soldiers from Umma falling in heaps in front of the soldiers from Lagash.[7] Epigraphy and archaeological records show other depictions of warfare.[6]
References
- ^ a b c DK (2012-04-16). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-4654-0373-5.
- ^ a b Hamblin, William J. (2006-09-27). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
- ^ a b c d Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua; Cairns, John (2006-01-19). Warfare in the Ancient World. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-78159-263-2.
- ^ a b c d e f g h McIntosh, Jane (2005). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-965-2.
- ^ Travis, Hilary & John (2014-12-15). Roman Helmets. Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4456-3847-8.
- ^ a b Elliott, Simon (2020-05-19). Old Testament Warriors: The Clash of Cultures in the Ancient Near East. Casemate. ISBN 978-1-61200-794-6.
- ^ Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7481-5.