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{{For|the 1997 film|Trojan War (film)}}
[[Image:J G Trautmann Das brennende Troja.jpg||thumb|right|250px|The fall of Troy by Johann Georg Trautmann (1713–1769) From the collections of the granddukes of Baden, Karlsruhe]]
The '''Trojan War''' was waged, according to legend, against the city of [[Troy]] in [[Asia Minor]], by the armies of the [[Achaeans]] (Mycenaean [[Greeks]]), after [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] of Troy stole [[Helen]] from her husband [[Menelaus]], king of [[Sparta]]. The war is among the most important events in [[Greek mythology]] and was narrated in many works of [[Greek literature]], of which the two most famous are the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'' of [[Homer]]. The ''Iliad'' relates a part of the last year of the siege of Troy, and the ''Odyssey'' describes the journey home of [[Odysseus]], one of the Achaean leaders. Other parts of the story were narrated in a [[Epic Cycle|cycle of epic poems]], which has only survived in fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for [[Greek tragedy]] and other works of Greek literature, and [[Latin literature|Roman]] poets like [[Virgil]] and [[Ovid]].

The war sprang from a quarrel between the goddesses [[Athena]], [[Hera]] and [[Aphrodite]], after the goddess [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]] ("Strife") gave them a [[golden apple]] with the inscription "to the fairest" (sometimes known as the [[Apple of Discord]]). The goddesses went to Paris, who [[Judgment of Paris|judged]] that Aphrodite, as the "fairest", should receive the apple. In exchange, Aphrodite made [[Helen]], the most beautiful of all women, fall in love with Paris, who took her to Troy. [[Agamemnon]], king of [[Mycenae]], and the brother of Helen's husband Menelaus, led an expedition of Achaean troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years. After the deaths of many heroes, including the Achaeans [[Achilles]] and [[Ajax (mythology)|Ajax]], and the Trojans [[Hector]] and Paris, the city fell to the ruse of the [[Trojan Horse]]. The Achaeans mercilessly slaughtered the Trojans and desecrated the temples, thus earning the gods' wrath. Few of the Achaeans returned to their homes and many founded colonies in distant shores. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] later traced their origin to [[Aeneas]], one of the Trojans, who was said to have led the surviving Trojans to Italy.

[[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] believed that the Trojan War was a historical event. They believed that it took place in the [[13th century BC|13th]] or [[12th century BC]], and that Troy was located in the vicinity of the [[Dardanelles]] in what is now north-western Turkey. By modern times both the war and the city were widely believed to be non-historical. In 1870, however, the German [[archaeology|archaeologist]] [[Heinrich Schliemann]] excavated a site in this area which he believed to be the site of Troy, and at least some archaeologists agree. There remains no certain evidence that Homer's Troy ever existed, still less that any of the events of the Trojan War cycle ever took place. Many scholars would agree that there is a historical core to the tale, though this may simply mean that the Homeric stories are a fusion of various stories of [[siege]]s and expeditions by the Greeks of the [[Bronze Age]] or [[Mycenae|Mycenean]] period. Those who think that the stories of the Trojan War derive from a specific historical conflict usually date it to between 1300 BC and 1200 BC, usually preferring the dates given by [[Eratosthenes]] (1194 BC–1184 BC) which roughly correspond with the burning of [[Troy VII]]a.

{{Greek myth}}

==Sources==
The events of the Trojan War were narrated in many works of [[Greek literature]] and depicted in numerous works of [[Greek art]]. There is no single, authoritative text which tells the entire story of the war. Instead, the story is assembled from many different sources, which sometimes report contradictory versions of events. The most important literary sources are the two epic poems traditionally credited to [[Homer]], the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', composed sometime between the ninth and sixth centuries BC. Each poem narrates only a part of the war. The ''Iliad'' covers a short period in the last year of the siege of Troy, while the ''Odyssey'' concerns Odysseus's return to his home island of [[Ithaca]] after the sack of Troy.

Other parts of the Trojan War were told in the poems of the [[Epic Cycle]], also known as the Cyclic Epics: the ''[[Kypria]]'', ''[[Aithiopis]]'', ''[[Little Iliad]]'', ''[[Iliou Persis]]'', ''[[Nostoi]]'', and ''[[Telegony]]''. These poems only survive in fragments, but their content is known from a summary included in [[Eutychius Proclus|Proclus]]' ''[[Chrestomathy]]''.<ref>It is unknown whether this Proclus is the Neoplatonic philosopher, in which case the summary dates to the fifth century AD, or whether he is the lesser-known grammarian of the second century AD. See Burgess, p. 12.</ref> The authorship of the Cyclic Epics is uncertain. It is generally thought that the poems were written down in the seventh and sixth century BC, after the composition of the Homeric poems, though it is widely believed that they were based on earlier traditions.<ref>Burgess, pp. 10–12; cf. W. Kullmann (1960), ''Die Quellen der Ilias''.</ref>

Both the Homeric epics and the Epic Cycle had their origins in a flourishing [[oral tradition]] of stories of the Trojan War. Even after the composition of the ''Iliad'', ''Odyssey'', and the Cyclic Epics, the myths of the Trojan War were passed on orally, in many genres of poetry and through non-poetic storytelling. Events and details of the story that are only found in later authors may have been passed on through oral tradition and could be as old as the Homeric poems. Visual art, such as vase-painting, was another medium in which myths of the Trojan War circulated.<ref>Burgess, pp. 3–4.</ref>

In later ages playwrights, [[historians]] and other intellectuals would create works inspired by the Trojan War. The three great tragedians of [[Athens]], [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]], wrote many dramas that portray episodes from the Trojan War. Among Roman writers the most important is the [[1st century BC]] poet [[Virgil]]. In Book 2 of the ''[[Aeneid]]'', [[Aeneas]] narrates the sack of Troy; this section of the poem is thought to rely on material from the Cyclic Epic ''[[Iliou Persis]]''.

The following summary of the Trojan War follows the order of events as given in Proclus' summary along with the ''Iliad'', ''Odyssey'', and ''Aeneid'', supplemented with details drawn from other authors.

==Origins of the war==
===The plan of Zeus===
:''For the foundation of Troy and her first fall to Heracles see [[Troy#Legendary Troy|Troy: "Legendary Troy"]]''.
According to Greek mythology, [[Zeus]] had become king of the gods by overthrowing his father [[Cronus]]; Cronus in turn had overthrown his father [[Uranus (mythology)|Ouranos]]. Zeus was not faithful to his wife (and sister) [[Hera]] and had many relationships from which many children were born. Since there were too many people populating the earth already he came up along with either [[Momos]]<ref>Scholium on Homer A.5</ref> or [[Themis]]<ref>Plato, ''Republic'' 2,379e.</ref> with the idea of the Trojan War in order to depopulate the Earth, especially of his demigod descendants.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.1, Hesiod Fragment 204,95ff.</ref>

===The marriage of Peleus and Thetis, the Apple of Discord, and the Judgment of Paris===
:''See also [[Judgement of Paris]].
[[Image:Rubens_-_Judgement_of_Paris.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''The Judgement of Paris,'' [[Peter Paul Rubens]], ''ca'' 1636 ([[National Gallery, London]])]]

Zeus came to learn from either [[Themis]]<ref>Apollonius Rhodius 4.757.</ref> or [[Prometheus]], after [[Heracles]] had released him from [[Caucasus]],<ref>Aeschylus, ''Prometheus Bound'' 767.</ref> that he himself would be overthrown by a son. Another prophecy said of the sea-nymph [[Thetis]], with whom Zeus had an affair, that her son would be greater than his father.<ref>Scholiast on Homer’s ''Iliad''; Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 54; Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' 11.217.</ref> Possibly for one or both of these reasons,<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.168.</ref> Thetis was betrothed to a now-elderly human king, [[Peleus]] son of [[Aiakos]], either upon Zeus' orders,<ref>Pindar, ''Nemean'' 5 ep2; Pindar, ''Isthmian'' 8 str3–str5.</ref> or because Thetis wished to please Hera since she had raised her.<ref>Hesiod, ''Catalogue of Women'' fr. 57; ''Cypria'' fr. 4.</ref>
All of the gods were invited to Peleus and Thetis' wedding and brought gifts,<ref>Photius, ''Myrobiblion'' 190.</ref> except [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]] ("Discord") who was stopped at the door by [[Hermes]] on Zeus' order.<ref>P.Oxy. 56, 3829 (L. Koppel, 1989)</ref> Insulted she threw from the door a gift of her own:<ref>Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 92.</ref> Her gift was a [[golden apple]] (το μήλον της έριδος) on which were inscribed the words ''Tēi Kallistēi'', ("To the fairest"). The apple was claimed by [[Hera]], [[Athena]], and [[Aphrodite]]. They quarreled bitterly over it, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one, for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus ordered [[Hermes]] to lead the three goddesses to Paris, a prince of [[Troy]], who, unaware of his ancestry, was being raised as a [[shepherd]] in [[Mount Ida]],<ref>Pausanias, 15.9.5.</ref> because of a prophecy that he would be the downfall of Troy.<ref>Euripides ''Andromache'' 298; Div.i. 21; Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.12.5.</ref> The goddesses tried to bribe the shepherd. Athena offered Paris wisdom, skill in battle, and the abilities of the greatest warriors; Hera offered him political power and control of all of [[Asia]], and Aphrodite offered him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. Paris awarded the apple to Aphrodite, and, after several adventures, returned to Troy and was recognized by his family.

To Peleus and Thetis a son was born, named [[Achilles]].<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' Y 207.</ref> It was foretold that he would either die of old age after an uneventful life, or die young in a battlefield and gain immortality through poetry.<ref>Homer Iliad I.410</ref> Furthermore [[Calchas]] had prophesied, when Achilles was nine, that Troy could not fall again without his help.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.174.</ref> As an infant Thetis tried to make Achilles immortal. First she held him over fire to burn away his mortal parts every night and rubbed him with ambrosia during the day<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.117.</ref> Peleus, who had already lost six sons this way,<ref>Lycophron, ''Alexandra'' 178,</ref> discovered this and stopped it. Then she bathed him in the [[Styx (mythology)|River Styx]], making him invulnerable wherever he had touched the water.<ref>Statius, ''Achilleid'' 1.25.</ref> She had held him by the heel, so that part remained mortal, and so he remained human and not a god (hence the expressions [[Achilles heel]] for an isolated weakness). He grew up to be the greatest of all mortal warriors. After Calchas' prophesy Thetis hid Achilles in [[Skyros]] at the court of king [[Lycomedes]] where he was disguised as a girl.<ref>Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 96.</ref>

===The elopement of Paris and Helen===
[[Image:Helene Paris David.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Les Amours de Pâris et d'Hélène (detail), 1788 by Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825) [[Louvre]]]]
[[Image:Francesco Primaticcio 003.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The kidnapp of Helen by Francesco Primaticcio (1530–1539) [[Bowes Museum]]]]
The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, one of the daughters of [[Tyndareus]], king of Sparta. Her mother was [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]], who had been seduced (or raped) by Zeus in the form of a [[swan]];<ref>Apollodorus 3.10.7.</ref> accounts differ over which of Leda's four children were fathered by Zeus and which by Tyndareus. Helen though is usually given as Zeus' daughter<ref>Pausanias 1.33.1; Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.10.7.</ref> and sometimes [[Nemesis (mythology)|Nemesis]] is given as her mother.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.10.5</ref><ref>Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 77.</ref> Helen had [[Helen#Suitors of Helen|scores of suitors]], and her father was unwilling to choose one for fear the others would retaliate violently.

Finally, one of the suitors, [[Odysseus]] of [[Ithaca]], proposed a plan to solve the dilemma. In exchange for Tyndareus' support of his own suit towards [[Penelope]],<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.10.9.</ref> he suggested that Tyndareus allow Helen to choose her husband<ref>Euripedes, Iphigenia in Tauris,70</ref> (instead of their father, as was typical in Greece from the mythical age until the twentieth century, though a few mythographers have Tyndareus choosing him) and require all of Helen's suitors to promise that they would defend the marriage of Helen, regardless of whom she chose. The suitors duly swore the required oath on the severed pieces of a horse, although not without a certain amount of grumbling.<ref>Pausanias 3.20.9.</ref>

Helen chose [[Menelaus]] to wed. He had humbly not petitioned for her himself, but instead sent his brother [[Agamemnon]] on his behalf. He had promised Aphrodite a [[hecatomb]], a sacrifice of 100 oxen, if he won Helen, but forgot about it, and earned her wrath.<ref>Ptolemy Hephaestion, ''New History'' 4 (as summarized in Photius, ''Myriobiblon'' 190).</ref> The two brothers had been living at Tyndareus' court since being exiled from their homeland of [[Argos]] after their father, [[Atreus]], was killed and had his throne usurped by his brother [[Thyestes]] and Thyestes' son [[Aegisthus]].<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 2.15.</ref> Menelaus inherited Tyndareus' throne of Sparta with Helen as his queen when her brothers [[Castor and Pollux]] became gods<ref>Pindar, ''Pythian'' 11 ep4</ref><ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.11.15.</ref> and Agamemnon married Helen's sister [[Clytemnestra]] and took back the throne of Argos.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 2.15.</ref>

On a diplomatic mission to Sparta, Paris fell in love with Helen. Menelaus had to leave for [[Crete]]<ref name=PC1>Proclus Chrestomathy 1</ref> to bury his uncle [[Crateus]].<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.3.</ref> Paris with Aphrodite's help, kidnapped<ref>Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 92.</ref> or seduced her<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' 3.441.</ref><ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 4.261.</ref> and sailed to Troy carrying off part of Menelaus' treasure. [[Hera]], still jealous over his judgement sent a storm.<ref name=PC1/> The storm made the lovers land in [[Egypt]], where the gods replaced Helen with a likeness of her made of clouds, [[Nephele]].<ref>Euripides, ''Helen'' 40.</ref> (The myth of Helen being switched is attributed to [[6th century BC]] Sicilian poet [[Stesichorus]]. For Homer the true Helen was in Troy). Then the ship landed in [[Sidon]] before reaching Troy. Paris, fearful of getting caught, spent some time there and then sailed to Troy.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.4.</ref>

Paris' abduction of Helen had several precedents. [[Io (mythology)|Io]] was taken from [[Argos]], [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]], was taken from [[Phoenicia]], [[Jason]] took [[Medea]] from [[Colchis]],<ref>Herodotus, ''Histories'' 1.2.</ref> and the Trojan princess [[Hesione]] had been taken by [[Heracles]] who gave her to [[Telamon]] of [[Salamis]].<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.12.7.</ref> According to Herodotus, Paris was emboldened by these examples to steal himself a wife from Greece, and expected no retribution, since there had been none in the other cases.<ref>Herodotus, 1.3.1.</ref>

==The gathering of Achean forces and the first expedition==
[[Image:homeric_greece.png|thumb|250px|Map of Homeric Greece]]
Menelaus asked Agamemnon to uphold his oath. He agreed and sent him [[Nestor]] along with other emissaries to all the Achean kings and princes, who were called to make good their oaths and retrieve Helen.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.6.</ref>

===Odysseus and Achilles===
[[Odysseus]] had by this time married [[Penelope]] and fathered a son, [[Telemachus]]. In order to avoid the war, he feigned madness, and sowed his fields with salt. [[Palamedes (Greek mythology)|Palamedes]] outwitted him by putting his infant son in front of the plough, and Odysseus turned aside, unwilling to kill his son, and so revealed his sanity and joined the war.<ref name=PC1/><ref> Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.7.</ref>

[[Image:Achilles Lycomedes Bray.jpg|thumb|250px|The Discovery of Achilles among the Daughters of Lycomedes, painting by Jan de Bray (1627–1697) in 1664, Muzeum Narodowe, [[Warsaw]]]]

At Skyros [[Achilles]] had an affair with the king's daughter [[Deidamea]], resulting in a child, [[Neoptolemus]].<ref>Statius, ''Achilleid'' 1.25</ref> Odysseus, [[Ajax (mythology)|Telamonian Ajax]], and Achilles' tutor [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]] went to retrieve Achilles. Achilles' mother disguised him as a woman so that he wouldn't need to go to war, but, according to one story they blew a horn, and Achilles revealed himself by seizing a spear to fight intruders rather than fleeing.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.13.8.</ref> According to another, they disguised themselves as merchants bearing trinkets and weaponry, and Achilles was marked out from the other women by admiring the wrong goods.<ref>Scholiast on Homer's ''Iliad'' 19.326; Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'' 13.162 ff.</ref>

[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] says that according to Homer, Achilles did not hide in Scyros, but rather conquered the island, as part of the Trojan War.<ref>Pausanias, 1.22.6.</ref>

===First gathering at Aulis===
The Achean forces gathered at [[Aulis]]. All the suitors sent their forces except King [[Cinyras]] of Cyprus. Though he sent breastplates to Agamemnon and promised to send 50 ships, he sent only one real ship led by the son of [[Mygdalion]] and 49 ships made of mud.<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' 11.19 ff.; Apollodurus, ''Epitome'' 3.9.</ref> [[Idomeneus]] was willing to lead the Cretan contingent in Mycenae's war against Troy, but only as a co-commander which he was granted.<ref>Philostratus, ''Heroicus'' 7.</ref> The last one to arrive was Achilles, who was then 15 years old.

Following a sacrifice to Apollo, a snake slithered from the altar to a sparrow's nest in a plane tree nearby. It ate the mother and her eight babies, then was turned to stone. Calchas interpreted this as a sign that Troy would fall in the tenth year of the war.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.15.</ref>

===Telephus===
When the [[Achaean League|Acheans]] left for the war, they did not know the way, and accidentally landed in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]] son of Heracles who had led a contingent of Arcadians to settle there.<ref>Pausanias, 1.4.6.</ref> In the battle, Achilles wounded Telephus,<ref>Pindar, ''Isthmian'' 8.</ref> who had killed [[Thersander]].<ref>Pausanias, 9.5.14.</ref> The wound would not heal so Telephus asked an oracle "What will happen to the wound?". The oracle responded, "he that wounded shall heal". The Achean fleet then set sail and was scattered by a storm. Achilles landed in Scyros and married Deidameia. A new gathering was set again in Aulis.<ref name=PC1/>

Telephus went to [[Aulis]], and either pretended to be a beggar, asking Agamemnon to help heal his wound,<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.20.</ref> or kidnapped [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] and held him for ransom, demanding the wound be healed.<ref>Aeschylus fragment 405–410</ref> Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound and the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound, and Telephus was healed.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'' 24.42, 34.152.</ref> Then Telephus showed the Acheans the route to Troy.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.20.</ref>

==The second gathering==
[[Image:Troas.png|thumb|250px|Map of the [[Troad]] (Troas)]]
Eight years after the storm had scattered them,<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.19.</ref> the fleet of more than a thousand ships was gathered again. But when they had all reached [[Aulis]], the winds ceased. The prophet Calchas stated that the goddess [[Artemis]] was punishing Agamemnon for killing a sacred deer (or a deer in a sacred grove) and boasting that he was a better hunter than she.<ref name=PC1/> The only way to appease Artemis, he said, was to sacrifice [[Iphigenia]], who was either the daughter of Agamemnon and [[Clytemnestra]],<ref>Philodemus, ''On Piety''.</ref> or of Helen and [[Theseus]] entrusted to Clytemnestra when Helen married Menelaus.<ref>Antoninus Liberalis, ''Metamorphoses'' 27.</ref> Agamemnon refused, and the other commanders threatened to make Palamedes commander of the expedition.<ref>Ptolemy Hephaestion, ''New History'' 5 (as summarized in Photius, ''Myriobiblon'' 190).</ref> According to some versions, Agamemnon relented, but others claim that he sacrificed a deer in her place, or that at the last moment, Artemis took pity on the girl, and took her to be a maiden in one of her temples, substituting a lamb.<ref name=PC1/> [[Hesiod]] says that Iphigenia became the goddess [[Hecate]].<ref>Pausanias, 1.43.1.</ref>

The Achean forces are described in detail in the [[Catalogue of Ships]], in the second book of the ''Iliad''. They consisted of 28 contingents from mainland Greece, the [[Peloponnese]], the [[Dodecanese]] islands, [[Crete]] and [[Ithaca]], comprising 1178 [[pentekontoroi]], that is ships with 50 rowers. Thucydides says<ref>''History of the Pelloponesian War'' 1,10.</ref> that according to tradition there were about 1200 ships, the Boeotian ships had 120 men while [[Philoctetes]] ships only had the fifty rowers, these probably being maximum and minimum. These numbers would mean a total force of 70,000 to 130,000. Another catalogue of ships is given by Apollodorus that differs somewhat but agrees in numbers. Some scholars have claimed that Homer's catalogue is an original Bronze age document, possibly the Achaean commander's order of operations.<ref>Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek Nation) vol. A, Ekdotiki Athinon, Athens 1968.</ref><ref name="Karykas">Pantelis Karykas, Μυκηναίοι Πολεμιστές (Mycenian Warriors), Athens 1999.</ref><ref name=Konstas>Vice Admiral P.E. Konstas R.H.N.,Η ναυτική ηγεμονία των Μυκηνών (The naval hegemony of Mycenae), Athens 1966</ref> Others believe it was a fabrication of Homer.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

The [[Trojan Battle Order|Trojan allies]] are also listed in the second book of the ''Iliad'', consisting of the Trojans themselves, led by [[Hector]], and various allies listed as [[Dardania (Asia minor)|Dardanians]] led by [[Aeneas]], [[Zeleia]]ns, [[Adrasteia]]ns, [[Percote|Percotians]], [[Pelasgians]], [[Thrace|Thracians]], [[Ciconian]] spearmen, [[Paionia]]n archers, [[Halizones]], [[Mysia]]ns, [[Phrygia]]ns, [[Maeonia]]ns, [[Miletus|Miletians]], [[Lycia]]ns led by [[Sarpedon]] and [[Carians]]. Nothing is said of the [[Trojan language]]; the Carians are specifically said to be [[Carian language|barbarian-speaking]], and the allied contingents are said to have spoken multiple languages, requiring orders to be translated by their individual commanders.<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' Β.803–806.</ref> It should be noted though that the Trojans and Acheans in the ''Iliad'' share the same religion, same culture and the enemy heroes speak to each other in the same language, though this could be dramatic effect.

==Nine years of war==
===Philoctetes===
[[Image:Philoctetes Hermonax Louvre G413.jpg|thumb|250px|Philoctetes abandoned at [[Lemnos]],detail of an Attic red-figure stamnos, ca. 460 BC, Campana Collection, 1861]]
[[Philoctetes]] was [[Heracles]]' friend and, because he lit Heracles's funeral pyre when no one else would, he received [[Heracles' bow and arrows]].<ref>Diodorus iv,38.</ref> He sailed with seven ships full of men to the Trojan War, where he was planning on fighting for the Acheans. They stopped either at [[Chryse]] for supplies,<ref>Pausanias 8.33.4</ref> or in [[Tenedos]] along with the rest of the fleet.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.27.</ref> Philoctetes was then bitten by a snake. The wound festered and had a foul smell; Odysseus advised, and the [[Atreidae]] ordered Philoctetes to stay on [[Lemnos]].<ref name=PC1/> [[Medon]] took control of Philoctetes's men. While landing on Tenedos Achilles killed king Tenes, son of Apollo, despite a warning by his mother that if he did so he would be killed himself by Apollo.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.26.</ref> From Tenedos Agamemnon sent an embassy to Priam composed of Menelaus, Odysseus and Palamedes asking for Helen's return. The embassy was refused.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.28.</ref>

Philoctetes stayed on Lemnos for ten years, which was a deserted island according to Sophocles' tragedy ''Philoctetes'', but according to earlier tradition was populated by [[Minyans]].<ref>Herodotus 4.145.3.</ref>

===Arrival===
Calchas had prophesied that the first Achean to walk on land after stepping off a ship, would be the first to die.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.29.</ref> Thus even Achilles hesitated to land. Finally [[Protesilaus]], leader of the [[Phylace]]ans, landed first..<ref>Pausianias 4.2.7.</ref> Achilles jumped second and killed [[Cycnus]] son of Poseidon. The Trojans then fled to the safety of the walls of their city.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.31.</ref> Protesilaus had killed many Trojans but was killed by [[Hector]]<ref> Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.30.</ref> or Aeneas, [[Achates]] or [[Ephorbus]].<ref>Eustathius on Homer, ''Iliad'' ii.701.</ref> The Acheans buried him as a god on the Thracian peninsula, across the [[Troad]].<ref>Scholiast on Lycophron 532.</ref> After Protesilaus' death, his brother, [[Podarces]], joined the war in his place.

===Achilles' campaigns===
[[Image:Achilles Patroclus Berlin F2278.jpg|thumb|250px|Achilles bandaging Patroclus ca.[[500 BC]]. Staatliche Museen, Antikenabteilung, [[Berlin]]]]
The Acheans besieged Troy for nine years. This part of the war is the least developed among surviving sources, which prefer to talk about events in the last year of the war. After the initial landing the army was gathered in its entirety again only in the tenth year, due to lack of money as Thucydides deduces. They raided the Trojan allies and spent time farming the Thracian peninsula.<ref>Thucydides 1.11.</ref> Troy was never completely besieged, thus it maintained communications with the interior of [[Asia Minor]]. Reinforcements continued to come until the very end. Also the Acheans controlled only the entrance to the Dardanelles, Troy and her allies controlled the shortest point at [[Abydos]] and [[Sestus]] and communicated with allies in Europe.<ref name=PK>Papademetriou Konstantinos, "Τα όπλα του Τρωϊκού Πολέμου" ("The weapons of the Trojan War"), Panzer Magazine issue 14, June–July 2004, Athens.</ref>

Achilles was the most active of the Acheans. According to Homer he conquered 11 cities and 12 islands.<ref>Iliad I.328</ref> According to Apollodorus he raided the land of Aeneas in the Troad region and stole his cattle.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.32.</ref> He also captured [[Lyrnassus]] and [[Pedasus]] and many of the neighbouring cities, and killed Troilus, son of Priam who was 19 and was said that if he reached 20 Troy would not fall. Then:
:''He also took [[Lesbos]] and [[Phocaea]], then [[Colophon]], and [[Smyrna]], and [[Clazomenae]], and [[Cyme]]; and afterwards [[Aegialus]] and [[Tenos]], the so-called Hundred Cities; then, in order, [[Adramytium]] and [[Side]]; then [[Endium]], and [[Linaeum]], and [[Colone]]. He took also [[Hypoplacian Thebes]] and [[Lyrnessus]], and further [[Antandrus]], and many other cities.''<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 3.33; translation, Sir James George Frazer.</ref>

Kakrides comments that the list is wrong in that it extends too far into the south.<ref>Volume 5 p.80</ref> Other sources talk of him taking Pedasus,[[Monenia]]<ref>Demetrius (2nd century BC) Scholium on Iliad Z,35</ref> [[Mythemna]] (in Lesbos) and [[Peisidice]].<ref>Parthenius Ερωτικά Παθήματα 21</ref>

Among the loot from these cities was [[Briseis]] from Lyrnessus who was awarded to him and [[Chryseis]] from Hypoplacian Thebes who was awarded to Agamemnon.<ref name=PC1/> Achilles captured Lycaon, son of Priam,<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' 3.12.5.</ref> while he was cutting branches in his father's orchards. [[Patroclus]] sold him as a slave in Lemnos,<ref name=PC1/> where he was bought by Eetion of [[Imbros]] and brought back to Troy. Only 12 days later Achilles slew him (after the death of Patroclus).<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' Φ 35–155.</ref>

===Ajax and a game of ''petteia''===
[[Ajax (mythology)|Telamonian Ajax]] laid waste the Thracian peninsula of which [[Polymestor]], a son-in-law of Priam, was king. Polymestor surrendered [[Polydorus]], one of Priam's children, of whom he had custody. He then attacked the town of the [[Phrygian]] king [[Teleutas]], killed him in single combat and carried off his daughter Tecmessa.<ref>Dictis Cretensis ii. 18; Sophocles, ''Ajax'' 210.</ref> Ajax also hunted the Trojan flocks, both on [[Mount Ida]] and in the countryside.

Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war Achilles and Ajax were playing a [[board game]] (''petteia'').<ref>[http://www.personal.psu.edu/wxk116/roma/petteia.html "Petteia".]</ref><ref>[http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Austin/index.html "Greek Board Games".]</ref> They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle.<ref>[http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/enwiki/w/x/wxk116/roma/latruncu.html "Latrunculi".]</ref> The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were only saved by an intervention of Athena.<ref>Kakrides vol. 5 p. 92.</ref>

===The death of Palamedes===
Odysseus was sent to Thrace to return with grain but came back empty-handed. When scorned by [[Palamedes (Greek mythology)|Palamedes]] he challenged him to do better. Palamedes set out also and returned with a shipload.<ref>Serbius,Scholium on Virgil's Aeniad 2.81</ref>

Odysseus had never forgiven Palamedes for threatening the life of his son. So Odysseus conceived a plot.<ref>According to other accounts Odysseus, with the other Greek captains, including Agamemnon, conspired together against Palamedes, as all were envious of his accomplishments. See Simpson, ''Gods & Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus'', p.251.</ref> An incriminating letter was forged, from Priam to Palamedes.<ref>According to Apollodorus ''Epitome'' 3.8, Odysseus forced a Phrygian prisoner, to write the letter.</ref>, and gold was planted in Palamedes' quarters. The letter and gold were "discovered", and Agamemnon had Palamedes stoned to death for treason.

However, Pausanias, quoting the ''Cypria'', says that Odysseus and [[Diomedes]] drowned Palamedes, while he was fishing, and [[Dictys]] says that Odysseus and Diomedes, lured Palamedes into a well, which they said contained gold, then stoned him to death.<ref>Pausanias 10.31.2; Simpson, ''Gods & Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus'', p.251.</ref>

Palamedes' father [[Nauplius]] sailed to the Troad and asked for justice, but was refused. In revenge Nauplius traveled among the Achaean kingdoms and told the wives of the kings that they were bringing Trojan concubines to dethrone them. Many of the Greek wives were persuaded to betray their husbands, most significantly Agamemnon's wife, [[Clytemnestra]] with [[Aegisthus]], son of [[Thyestes]].<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.9.</ref>

===Mutiny===
Near the end of the ninth year since the landing the Achean army, tired from the fighting and from the lack of supplies mutinied against their leaders and demanded to return to their homes. According to the Cypria Achilles forced the army to stay.<ref name=PC1/> According to Apollodorus Agamemnon brought the [[Wine Growers]], daughters of [[Anius]] son of [[Apollo]] who had the gift of producing by touch wine, wheat and oil from the earth, in order to relieve the supply problem of the army.<ref>Apollodorus, Epitome 3.10</ref>

==The ''Iliad''==
[[Image:Chryses Agamemnon Louvre K1.jpg|thumb|250px|Chryses pleading with Agamemnon for his daughter,ca. 360 BC–350 BC [[Louvre]]]]
[[Image:Hydria Achilles weapons Louvre E869.jpg|thumb|250px|Thetis gives her son Achilles his weapons newly forged by Hephaestus, detail of an Attic black-figure hydria, ca. 575 BC–550 BC[[Louvre]]]]
{{main|Iliad}}
[[Chryses]], a priest of Apollo and father of [[Chryseis]], came to [[Agamemnon]] to ask for the return of his daughter. Agamemnon refused, and insulted [[Chryses]], who prayed to [[Apollo]] to avenge his ill-treatment. Enraged, Apollo afflicted the Achaean army with plague. [[Agamemnon]] was forced to return Chryseis to end the plague, and took Achilles' concubine [[Briseis]] as his own. Enraged at the dishonor Agamemnon had inflicted upon him, Achilles decided he would no longer fight. He asked his mother, Thetis, to intercede with Zeus, who agreed to give the Trojans success in the absence of Achilles, the best warrior of the Achaeans.

After the withdrawal of Achilles, the Achaeans were initially successful. Both armies gathered in full for the first time since the landing. Menelaus and Paris fought a duel, which ended when Aphrodite snatched the beaten Paris from the field. The truce was broken, the Achean army nearly reached the wall, and [[Diomedes]], with the assistance of Athena, nearly killed [[Aeneas]], and wounded the gods [[Aphrodite]] and [[Ares]]. Through the next days, however, the Trojans had the upper hand. They drove back the Acheans to their camp. On the first day of the Trojan attack they were stopped at the Achean wall by Poseidon. The next day, though, with Zeus' help, the Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and were on the verge of setting fire to the Achaean ships. An earlier appeal to Achilles to return was rejected, but after Hector burned Protesilaus' ship, he allowed his close friend and relative Patroclus to go into battle wearing Achilles' armor and leading his army. Patroclus drove the Trojans back all the way to the walls of Troy and was only prevented from storming the city by the intervention of Apollo. Patroclus was then killed by Hector (with Apollo's help), who took Achilles' armor from the body of Patroclus.

Achilles, maddened with grief, swore to kill Hector in revenge. He was reconciled with Agamemnon and received Briseis back, untouched by Agamemnon. He received a new set of arms, forged by the god [[Hephaestus]], and returned to the battlefield. He slaughtered many Trojans, and nearly killed Aeneas, who was saved by Poseidon. Achilles fought with the river Scamander, and a battle of the gods followed. The Trojan army returned to the city, except for Hector, who remained outside because he was tricked by [[Athena]]. Achilles killed Hector, and afterwards he dragged Hector's body from his chariot and refused to return the body to the Trojans for burial. The Achaeans then conducted funeral games for Patroclus. Afterwards, Priam came to Achilles' tent, guided by [[Hermes]], and asked Achilles to return Hector's body. The armies made a temporary truce to allow the burial of the dead. The ''Iliad'' ends with the funeral of Hector.

==After the ''Iliad''==
[[Image:Penthesilea-Maler 001.jpg|thumb|250px|Achilles killing Penthesilea, Antikensammlung [[Munich]]]]
===Penthesilea and the death of Achilles===
Shortly after the burial of Hector, [[Penthesilea]], queen of the [[Amazons]] arrived with her warriors.<ref>Scholiast on Homer, ''Iliad''. xxiv. 804.</ref> Penthesilea, daughter of Otrere and Ares, had killed by accident her sister [[Hippolyte]]. She was purified from this by Priam<ref>Quintus of Smyrna, ''Posthomerica'' i.18 ff.</ref> and in exchange, she fought for him and killed many, including [[Machaon]]<ref name=AE51>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.1.</ref> (although according to Pausanias, Machaon was killed by [[Eurypylus]])<ref>Pausanias 3.26.9.</ref> and according to one version Achilles himself, who was resurrected at the request of Thetis.<ref>Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Bk6 (as summarized in Photius, Myriobiblon 190)</ref> Penthesilia was then killed by Achilles<ref name=PC2A>Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'' 2, ''Aethiopis''.</ref> who fell in love with her beauty, after her death. [[Thersites]], a simple soldier and the ugliest Achaean, taunted Achilles over his love<ref name=AE51/> and gouged out Penthesilea's eyes.<ref>Tzetzes, ''Scholiast on Lycophron'' 999.</ref> Achilles slew Thersites, and after a dispute sailed to Lesbos where he was purified for his murder by Odysseus after sacrificing to Apollo, Artemis and Leto.<ref name=PC2A/>

While they were away, [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]] of [[Ethiopia]], son of [[Tithonus]] and [[Eos]]<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.3.</ref> came with his host to help his stepbrother Priam.<ref>Tzetzes ad Lycophroon 18.</ref> He did not come directly from Ethiopia, but either from [[Susa]] in Persia, conquering all the peoples in between,<ref>Pausanias 10.31.7.</ref> or from the [[Caucasus]], leading an army of Ethiopians and Indians.<ref>Dictys Cretensis iv. 4.</ref> He wore armor made by Hephaestus, like Achilles.<ref>Virgil, ''Aeneid'' 8.372.</ref> In the ensuing battle, Memnon killed Achilles' intimate friend [[Antilochus]], who took one of Memnon's blows to save his father [[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]].<ref>Pindarus ''Pythian'' vi. 30.</ref> Then Achilles and Memnon fought. Zeus weighed the fate of the two heroes, and the weight containing that of Memnon sank,<ref>Quintus Smyrnaeus ii. 224.</ref> and Memnon was slain by Achilles.<ref name=PC2A/><ref>Diodorus Siculus, ''Library of History'' 4.75.4.</ref> Achilles chased the Trojans to their city which he entered. The gods, seeing that he had killed too many of their children decided that it was his time to die. He was killed by Paris with a poisoned arrow that was guided by Apollo.<ref name=PC2A/><ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.3.</ref><ref>Pausanias 1.13.9.</ref> In another version he is killed by a knife to the back (or heel) by Paris while marrying [[Polyxena]] daughter of Priam in the temple of Thymbraean Apollo,<ref>Euripedes, ''Hecuba'' 40.</ref> the site where he had earlier killed Troilus. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valour, saying Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and [[funeral games]] were held. Like Ajax, he is represented as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]]<ref> Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.5.</ref> where he is married to Helen.<ref>Pausanias 3.19.13.</ref> Funeral games were held in his honor.<ref>Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' iv. 88–595.</ref>

===The Judgment of Arms: Achilles' armour and the death of Ajax===
[[Image:Ajax suicide.jpg|thumb|250px|Ajax preparing to commit suicide]]
A great battle raged around the dead Achilles. Odysseus held back the Trojans, while Ajax carried the body away.<ref name=PC2A/> When Achilles' armour was offered to the bravest, the two that had saved his body came forward as competitors. Agamemnon, unwilling to undertake the invidious duty of deciding between the two competitors, referred the dispute to the decision of the Trojan prisoners, inquiring of them which of the two heroes had done most harm to the Trojans.<ref>Scholiast on Homer's ''Odyssey'' λ.547.</ref> Alternatively the Trojans and Pallas Athena were the judges<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' λ 542.</ref><ref name=PC3LI>Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'' 3, ''Little Iliad''.</ref> in that, following Nestor's advice, spies were sent to the walls to overhear what was said. A girl said that Ajax was braver:
:''For Aias took up and carried out of the strife the hero, Peleus'
:''son: this great Odysseus cared not to do.''
:To this another replied by Athena's contrivance:
:''Why, what is this you say? A thing against reason and untrue!
:''Even a woman could carry a load once a man had put it on her
:''shoulder; but she could not fight. For she would fail with fear
:''if she should fight.'' (Scholiast on Aristophanes, Knights 1056 and Aristophanes ib)
[[Image:Ajax suicide 2.jpg|thumb|250px|Ajax having committed suicide]]
According to Pindar, the decision was by secret ballot among the Acheans.<ref>Pindar, ''Nemean Odes'' 8.46(25).</ref> In any case the arms were awarded to Odysseus. Driven mad with grief, Ajax desired to kill his comrades, but Athena caused him to mistake the cattle and their herdsmen for the Achean wariors.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.6.</ref> In his frenzy he scourged two rams, believing them to be Agamemnon and Menelaus.<ref>Zenobius, ''Cent.'' i.43.</ref> In the morning, he came to his senses and killed himself by jumping on the sword that had been given to him by Hector, so that it pierced his armpit, his only vulnerable part.<ref>Sophocles, ''Ajax'' 42, 277, 852.</ref> According to an older tradition he was killed by the Trojans who, seeing he was invulnerable, attacked him with clay until he was covered by it and could no longer move, thus dying of starvation.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===The prophecies===
After the tenth year, it was prophesied<ref>Either by Calchas, (Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.8; Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' 9.325–479), or by Paris' brother [[Helenus]] (Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'' 3, ''Little Illiad''; Sophocles, ''Philoctetes'' 604–613; Tzetzes, ''Posthomerica'' 571–595).</ref> that Troy could not fall without Heracles' bow (which was with [[Philoctetes]] in Lemnos). So Odysseus and Diomedes<ref>This is according to Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.8, Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 103, Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' 9.325–479, and Euripides, ''Philoctetes''—but Sophocles, ''Philoctetes'' says Odysseus and Neoptolemus, while Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'' 3, ''Little Illiad'' says Diomedes alone.</ref> retrieved Philoctetes, whose wound was healed.<ref>Philoctetes was cured by a son of [[Asclepius]], either [[Machaon (mythology)|Machaon]], (Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'' 3, ''Little Illiad''; Tzetzes, ''Posthomerica'' 571–595) or his brother [[Podalirius]] (Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.8; Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' 9.325–479).</ref> Philoctetes then shot and killed Paris.

According to Apollodorus, Paris' brothers [[Helenus]] and [[Deiphobus]] vied over the hand of Helen. Deiphobus prevailed and Helenus abandoned Troy for Mt. Ida. But Chalcas said that Helenus knew the prophecies concerning the fall of Troy, so Odysseus waylaid Helenus.<ref name=PC3LI/><ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.9.</ref> Under coercion, Helenus told the Acheans that they would win, if they retrieved [[Pelops]]' bones, persuaded Achilles' son [[Neoptolemus]] to fight for them, and stole the Trojan [[Palladium (mythology)|Palladium]].<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.10; Pausanias 5.13.4.</ref>

The Greeks retrieved Pelop's bones,<ref>Pausanias 5.13.4–6, says that Pelop's sholder-blade was brought to Troy from Pisa, and on its return home was lost at sea, later to be found by a fisherman, and identified as Pelop's by the [[Oracle at Delphi]].</ref> and sent Odysseus to retrieve Neoptolemus, who was hiding from the war in king [[Lycomedes]]'s court in [[Scyros]]. Odysseus gave him his father's arms.<ref name=PC3LI/><ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.11.</ref> [[Eurypylus]], son of [[Telephus]], leading a large force of ''Kêteioi'' according to Homer<ref>''Odyssey λ.520</ref> (could they be [[Hittites]]?) or [[Mysia|Mysians]] according to Apollodorus,<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.12.</ref> arrived to aid the Trojans. He killed [[Machaon (mythology)|Machaon]]<ref>Pausanias 3.26.9.</ref> and Peneleus<ref>Pausanias 9.5.15.</ref> but was slain by Neoptolemus.

Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus went to spy inside Troy, but was recognized by Helen. Homesick,<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 4.242 ff.</ref> Helen plotted with Odysseus. Later, with Helen's help, Odysseus and Diomedes stole the Palladium.<ref name=PC3LI/><ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.13.</ref>

===Trojan Horse===
{{main|Trojan Horse}}
[[Image:TrojanHorseMythImage.jpg|thumb|right|250px|19th century etching of the [[Trojan Horse]]]]

The end of the war came with one final plan. Odysseus devised a new ruse—a giant hollow wooden horse, an animal that was sacred to the Trojans. It was built by [[Epeius]], guided by Athena,<ref name=AE514>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 8.492–495; Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.14.</ref> from the wood of a [[cornel tree]] grove sacred to Apollo,<ref>Pausanias, 3.13.5.</ref> with the inscription:

:''The Greeks dedicate this thank-offering to Athena for their return home''.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.15, Simpson, p 246.</ref>

The hollow horse was filled with soldiers<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.14, says the hollow horse held 50, but attributes to the author of the ''Little Iliad'' a figure of 3,000, a number that Simpson, p 265, calls "absurd", saying that the surviving fragments only say that the Greeks put their "best men" inside the horse. [[John Tzetzes|Tzetzes]], ''Posthomerica'' 641–650, gives a figure of 23, while [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]], ''Posthomerica'' xii.314–335, gives the names of thirty, and says that there were more. In late tradition it seems it was standardized at 40.</ref> led by Odysseus. The rest of the army burned the camp and sailed for [[Tenedos]].<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 8.500–504; Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.15.</ref>

When the Trojans discovered that the Greeks were gone, believing the war was over, they "joyfully dragged the horse inside the city",<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.16, as translated by Simpson, p. 246. Proculus, ''Chrestomathy'' 3, ''Little Iliad'', says that the Trojans pulled down a part of their walls to admit the horse.</ref> while they debated what to do with it. Some thought they ought to hurl it down from the rocks, others to burn it, while others said they ought to dedicate it to Athena.<ref name=PC4IP>Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'' 4, ''Iliou Persis''.</ref><ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 8.505 ff.; Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.16–15.</ref>

Both [[Cassandra]] and [[Laocoön]] warned against keeping the horse.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.17 says that Cassandra warned of an armed force inside the horse, and that Lacoön agreed.</ref> But Cassandra, given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, was also cursed by Apollo to never be believed. Then serpents came out of the sea and devoured either Laocoön and one of his two sons,<ref name=PC4IP/> Laocoön and both his sons,<ref>Virgil, ''Aeneid'' 2.199–227; Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 135;</ref> or only his sons,<ref>Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xii.444–497; Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.18.</ref> a portent which so alarmed the followers of Aeneas that they withdrew to Ida.<ref name=PC4IP/> The Trojans decided to keep the horse and turned to a night of mad revelry and celebration.<ref name=PC3LI/> [[Sinon]], an Achean spy, signaled the fleet stationed at Tenedos when "it was midnight and the clear moon was rising"<ref>Scholiast on Lycophroon, 344.</ref> and the soldiers from inside the horse emerged and killed the guards.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.19–20.</ref>

Some have suggested that the Trojan Horse actually represents an [[earthquake]] that occurred between the wars that could have weakened Troy's walls and left them open for attack. Structural damage on Troy VI—its location being the same as that represented in Homer's ''Iliad'' and the artifacts found there suggesting it was a place of great trade and power—shows signs that there was indeed an earthquake. Generally though today Troy VIIa is believed to be Homer's Troy (see below).

Others have suggested that the Horse was a piece of siege machinery. Pausanias wrote:

:''That the work of Epeius was a contrivance to make a breach in the Trojan wall is known to everybody who does not attribute utter silliness to the Phrygians.''<ref>Pausanias, 1.23.8, translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A.</ref>

where by Phrygians he means the Trojans. Karykas<ref name="Karykas"/> notes that 3,000, the number of men in the horse, according to Apollodorus, given by the oldest source, the ''Little Iliad'', was the size of the crew of a [[helepolis]], a piece of siege machinery of the [[hellenistic era]]. Furthermore he notes that the Assyrians at the time used siege machines with animal names. Robert Graves believes that Troy would have likely been taken by a wheeled wooden tower covered with wet horse hides protecting against incendiary arrows.<ref>Graves, p. 697.</ref>

==The sack of Troy==
[[Image:Amphora death Priam Louvre F222.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Priam]] killed by [[Neoptolemus]], son of Achilles, detail of an Attic black-figure amphora, ca. 520 BC–510 BC [[Louvre]]]]
[[Image:Ajax drags Cassandra.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Ajax the Lesser]] prepares to drag away and rape the naked [[Cassandra]] seeking sanctuary at the statue of [[Athena]]. Red figure painting, c. 370–360 BC]]

The Acheans entered the city and killed the sleeping population. A great massacre followed which continued into the day.
:''Blood ran in torrents, drenched was all the earth,
:''As Trojans and their alien helpers died.
:''Here were men lying quelled by bitter death
:''All up and down the city in their blood.''<ref>Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xiii.100–104,Translation by A.S. Way, 1913.</ref>

Neoptolemus killed Priam, who had taken refuge at the altar of Zeus of the Courtyard.<ref name=PC4IP/><ref name=AE521>Apollodorus. ''Epitome'' 5.21.</ref> Menelaus killed [[Deiphobus]], Helen's husband after Paris' death, and also intended to kill Helen, but overcome by her beauty, threw down his sword<ref>Aristophanes, ''Lysistrata'' 155; Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xiii.423–457.</ref> and took her to the ships.<ref name=PC4IP/><ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.22.</ref>

[[Ajax the Lesser]] raped Cassandra on Athena's altar while she was clinging to her statue. Because of Ajax's impiety, the Acheaens, urged by Odysseus, wanted to stone him to death, but he fled to Athena's altar, and was spared.<ref name=PC4IP/><ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.22; Pausanias 10.31.2; Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xiii.462–473; Virgil, ''Aeneid'' 403–406. The rape of Cassandra was a popular theme of ancient Greek paintings, see Pausanias, 1.15.2, 5.11.6, 5.19.5, 10.26.3.</ref>

[[Antenor (mythology)|Antenor]], who had given hospitality to Menelaus and Odysseus when they asked for the return of Helen, and who had advocated so, was spared, along with his family.<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' 3.203–207, 7.347–353; Apollodorus, ''Epitome'', 5.21; Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xiii.322–331, Livy, 1.1; Pausanias, 10.26.8, 27.3 ff.; Strabo, 13.1.53.</ref> Aeneas took his father on his back and fled, and according to Apollodorus, was allowed to go because of his piety.<ref name=AE521/>

The Greeks then burned the city and divided the spoils. Cassandra was awarded to Agamemnon. Neoptolemus got Andromache, wife of Hector and Odysseus, [[Hecuba]], Priam's wife.<ref>Apollodorus. ''Epitome'' 5.23.</ref>

The Achaeans<ref>Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'' 4, ''Ilio Persis'', says Odysseus killed Astyanax, while Pausanias, 10.25.9, says Neoptolemus.</ref> threw Hector's infant son [[Astyanax]] down from the walls of Troy,<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.23. </ref> either out of cruelty and hate<ref>Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xiii.279–285.</ref> or to end the royal line, and the possibllity of a son's revenge.<ref>Euripides, ''Trojan Women'' 709–739, 1133–1135; Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' 109.</ref> They (by usual tradition Neoptolemus) also sacrificed the Trojan princess [[Polyxena]] on the grave of Achilles as demanded by his ghost, either as part of his spoil or because she had betrayed him.<ref>Euripides, ''Hecuba'' 107–125, 218–224, 391–393, 521–582; Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xiv.193–328.</ref>

[[Aethra]], [[Theseus]]' mother, and one of Helen's handmaids,<ref>Homer, ''Iliad'' 3.144.</ref> was rescued by her grandsons, [[Demophon]] and [[Acamas]].<ref name=PC4IP/><ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.22; Pausanias, 10.25.8; Quintus Smyrnaeus, ''Posthomerica'' xiii.547–595.</ref>

==The returns==
{{main|Returns from Troy}}

The gods were very angry over the destruction of their temples and other sacrilegious acts by the Acheans and decided that most would not return. A storm fell on the returning fleet off [[Tenos]] island. Also Nauplius, in revenge for the murder of his son Palamedes, set up false lights in [[Cape Caphereus]] (also known today as Cavo D'Oro, in [[Euboea]]) and many were shipwrecked.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.11.</ref>

Nestor, who had the best conduct in Troy and did not take part in the looting, was the only hero who had a good, fast and safe return.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.24.</ref> Those of his army that survived the war also reached home with him safely but later left and colonised [[Metapontium]] in Southern Italy.<ref>Strabo, 6.1.15.</ref>

[[Image:Poseidon and Ajax.png|thumb|250px|[[Poseidon]] smites [[Ajax the Lesser]] by [[Genelli Bonaventura]] (1798–1868)]]
[[Ajax the Lesser]], who had endured more than the others the wrath of the Gods never returned. His ship was wrecked by a storm sent by Athena who borrowed one of Zeus' thunderbolts and tore it to pieces. The crew managed to land in a rock but Poseidon struck it and Ajax fell in the sea and drowned. He was buried by Thetis in [[Myconos]]<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.6.</ref> or [[Delos]].<ref>Scholiast on Homer, ''Iliad'' 13.66.</ref>

Teucer son of Telamon and brother of the other Ajax stood trial by his father for his brother's death. He was not allowed to land and was at sea near Phreattys in [[Peiraeus]].<ref>Pausanias, 1.28.11.</ref> He was acquitted of responsibility but found guilty of negligence because he did not return his dead body or his arms. He left with his army (who took their wives) and founded Salamis in Cyprus.<ref>Pausanias, 8.15.7</ref> The Athenians later created a political myth that his son left his kingdom to Theseus' sons (and not to [[Megara]]).

Neoptolemus, following Helenus' advice who accompanied him travelled over land, always accompanied by Andromache. He met Odysseus and they buried Phoenix, Achilles' teacher, on the land of the Ciconians. Then they conquered the land of the [[Molossians]] ([[Epirus]]) and had a child by Andromache, Molossus to whom he later gave the throne.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.12</ref> Thus the kings of Epirus claimed descendance from Achilles, and so did [[Alexander the Great]] whose mother was of that royal house.''Alexander the Great and the kings of [[Macedon]] also claimed descendance from Heracles''. Helenus founded a city in Molossia and inhabited it, and Neoptolemus gave him his mother Deidamia as wife. After Peleus died he also succeed Phtia's throne too.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.13.</ref> He had a feud with [[Orestes]], son of Agamemon over Menelaus' daughter Hermione and was killed in Delphi, where he was buried.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.14.</ref> In Roman myths the kingdom of Phtia was taken over by Helenus who married Andromache. They offered hospitality to other Trojan refugees including Aeneas who paid a visit there during his wonderings.

Diomedes was first thrown by a storm on the coast of Lycia, where he was to be sacrificed to Ares by king [[Lycus]] but [[Callirrhoe]], the king's daughter, took pity upon him, and assisted him in escaping.<ref>Plutarch, 23.</ref> Then he accidentally landed in Attica in Phaleron. The Athenians, unaware that they were allies attacked them. Many were killed and the Palladium was taken by [[Demophon]].<ref>Pausanias, 1.28.9.</ref> He finally landed in Argos where his wife Aegialeia was committing adultery and, in disgust, left for [[Aetolia]].<ref>Tzetzes ad Lycophroon 609.</ref> According to later traditions he had some adventures and founded [[Canusium]] and [[Argyrippa]] in Southern Italy.<ref> Strabo, 6.3.9.</ref>

Philoctetes due to a sedition was driven from his city and emigrated to Italy where he founded the cities of [[Petilia]], [[Old Crimissa]], and [[Chone]], between [[Croton]] and [[Thurii]].<ref>Strabo, 6.1.3.</ref> After making war on the [[Leucanians]] he founded there a sanctuary of Apollo the Wanderer, to whom also he dedicated his bow.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.15b; Strabo, 6.1.3.</ref>

For Homer Idomeneus reached his house safe and sound.<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 3.191.</ref> Another tradition was formed later. After the war, [[Idomeneus]]'s ship hit a horrible storm. Idomeneus promised [[Poseidon]] that he would sacrifice the first living thing he saw when he returned home if [[Poseidon]] would save his ship and crew. The first living thing was his son, whom Idomeneus duly sacrificed. The gods were angry at his murder of his own son and they sent a plague to Crete. His people sent him into exile to [[Calabria]] in [[Italy]],<ref>Vergil, ''Aeneid'' 3.400</ref> and then [[Colophon]], in [[Asia Minor]], where he died.<ref>Scholiast on Homer's ''Odyssey'' 13.259.</ref> Among the lesser Acheans very few reached their homes.

===House of Atreus===
[[Image:The Murder Of Agamemnon - Project Gutenberg eText 14994.png|thumbnail|right|250px|The murder of [[Agamemnon]], from an 1879 illustration from ''Stories from the Greek Tragedians'' by Alfred Church.]]
According to the ''[[Odyssey]]'', Menelaus's fleet was blown by storms to [[Crete]] and [[Egypt]] where they were unable to sail away because the wind was calm.<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 4.360.</ref> Only 5 of his ships survived.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 5.24.</ref> Menelaus had to catch [[Proteus]], a shape-shifting sea god, to find out what sacrifices to which gods he would have to make to guarantee safe passage.<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 4.382.</ref> According to some stories the Helen who was taken by Paris was a fake, and the real Helen was in Egypt where she was reunited with Menelaus at this point. Proteus also told Menelaus that he was destined for [[Elysium]] (Heaven) after his death. Menelaus returned to Sparta with Helen 8 years after he had left Troy.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.29.</ref>

Agamemnon returned home with Cassandra to Argos. His wife [[Clytemnestra]] (Helen's sister) was having an affair with [[Aegisthus]], son of [[Thyestes]], Agamemnon's cousin who had conquered Argos before Agamemnon himself retook it. Possibly out of vengeance for the death of [[Iphigenia]], Clytemnestra plotted with her lover to kill Agamemnon. Cassandra foresaw this murder, and warned Agamemnon, but he disregarded her. He was killed, either at a feast or in his bath<ref>Pausanias, 2.16.6.</ref> according to different versions. Cassandra was also killed.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Epitome'' 6.23.</ref> Agamemnon's son Orestes, who had been away, returned and conspired with his sister [[Electra]] to avenge their father.<ref>Homer, ''Odyssey'' 1.30, 298.</ref> He killed [[Clytemnestra]] and [[Aegisthus]] and succeeded to his father's throne.<ref>Pausanias, 2.16.7.</ref><ref>Sophocles, ''Electra'' 1405.</ref>

==The Odyssey==
{{main|Odyssey}}
[[Image:Odysseus And Nausicaä - Project Gutenberg eText 13725.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''[[Odysseus]] and [[Nausicaä]]''' - by [[Charles Gleyre]]]]
[[Odysseus|Odysseus']] ten year journey home to [[Ithaca]] was told in [[Homer|Homer's]] ''Odyssey''. Odysseus and his men were blown far off course to lands unknown to the Achaeans; there Odysseus had many adventures, including the famous encounter with the [[Cyclops]] [[Polyphemus]], and an audience with the seer [[Teiresias]] in [[Hades]]. On the island of [[Thrinacia]], Odysseus' men ate the cattle sacred to the sun-god [[Helios]]. For this sacrilege Odysseus' ships were destroyed, and all his men perished. Odysseus had not eaten the cattle, and was allowed to live; he washed ashore on the island of [[Ogygia]], and lived there with the nymph [[Calypso (mythology)|Calypso]]. After seven years, the gods decided to send Odysseus home; on a small raft, he sailed to [[Scheria]], the home of the [[Phaeacians]], who gave him passage to [[Ithaca]].

There Odysseus traveled disguised as an old beggar by Athena he was recognised by his dog [[Argos (dog)|Argos]] who died in his lap. Then he discovered his wife was faithful to him all these years despite the countless suitors that were eating and spending his property all these years. With his son's [[Telemachus]]' help and those of Athena, and [[Eumaeus]], the swineherd, killed all of them except [[Medôn]], who had been polite to Penelope, and [[Phemius]], a local singer who had only been forced to help the suitors against Penelope. Penelope tested him and made sure it was him, and he forgave her. On the next day the suitor's relatives tried to revenge on him but they were stopped by Athena.

Years later Odysseus' son Telegonus of Circe came from the sea and plundered the island thinking it was [[Corcyra]]. Odysseus and Telemachus, defended their city and Telegonus accidentally killed his father with the spine of a [[stingray]]. He brought the body back to Aeaea and took Penelope, Odysseus' widow, and Telemachus, Odysseus' son, with him. Circe made them immortal and married Telemachus, while Telegonus made Penelope his wife.<ref>Proclus Chrestomathy 2,Telegony</ref> This is where the tale of the Trojan War for Greek mythology ends. According to a Roman tradition Odysseus did not die this way: when old he took a ship to sea and, crossing the [[Pillars of Heracles]] he discovered the [[estuary]] of the [[Tagus river]] and found there the city of [[Lisbon]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==The Aeneid==
{{main|The Aeneid}}
[[Image:BarocciAeneas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Aeneas flees burning Troy,'' [[Federico Barocci]], 1598 [[Galleria Borghese]], Rome]]

Aeneas led a group of survivors away from the city, including his son [[Ascanius]], his trumpeter [[Misenus]], father [[Anchises]], the healer [[Iapyx]], all the [[Lares]] and [[Penates]] and [[Mimas]] as a guide. His wife [[Creusa]] was killed during the sack of the city. They fled Troy with a number of ships, seeking to establish a new homeland elsewhere. They landed in several nearby countries that proved inhospitable and finally were told by a [[Sibyl]] that they had to return to the land of their forebears. They first tried [[Crete]], where [[Dardanus]] had once settled, but found it ravaged by the same plague that had driven [[Idomeneus]] away. They found the colony led by Helenus and Andromache, but declined to remain. After seven years they arrived in [[Carthage]], where Aeneas had an affair with [[Dido]]. Eventually the gods ordered him to continue onward (Dido committed [[suicide]]), and he and his people arrived at the mouth of the [[river Tiber]] in Italy. There a [[Sibyl]] took him to the underworld and foretold the majesty of [[Rome]], which would be founded by his people. He negotiated a settlement with the local king, [[Lavinius]], and was wed to his daughter, [[Lavinia]]. This triggered a war with other local tribes, which culminated in the founding of the settlement of [[Alba Longa]], ruled by Aeneas and Lavinia's son [[Silvius]]. Three hundred years later, according to [[Roman mythology|Roman myth]], his descendants [[Romulus]] and [[Remus]] founded [[Rome]]. The details of the journey of Aeneas, his affair with Dido, and his settling in Italy are the subject of the Roman epic poem ''[[The Aeneid]]'' by [[Virgil]]. According to tradition though Carthage was founded in [[814 BC]], so the true Aeneas, if he had ventured to the West he would have found little more than villages.

==Date of the Trojan War==
Since this war was considered among the ancient Greeks as either the last event of the mythical age or the first event of the historical age, several dates are given for the fall of Troy. They usually derive from genealogies of kings. [[Ephorus]] gives [[1135 BC]],<ref> FGrHist 70 </ref> [[Sosibius]] [[1172 BC]],<ref>FGrHist 595F1</ref> [[Eratosthenes]] [[1184 BC]]/[[1183 BC]],<ref> Chronographiai FGrHist 241 </ref> [[Plato]] [[1193 BC]],<ref> Timaeus 125 </ref> the [[Parian marble]] [[1209 BC]]/[[1208 BC]]<ref> Fragment 24 </ref> ,[[Dicaearchus]] [[1212 BC]],<ref> Bios Hellados </ref> [[Herodotus]] around 1250 BC,<ref> Histories 2,145 </ref>[[Eretes]] [[1291 BC]]<ref>FGrHist 242F1</ref> while [[Douris (tyrant)|Douris]] [[1334 BC]].<ref> FGrHist 76 </ref> As for the exact day [[Ephorus]] gives 23/24 Thargelion (July 6 or 7), [[Hellanicus]] 12 Thargelion ([[May 26]])<ref>FGrHist 4 F 152</ref> while others give the 23rd of Sciroforion ([[July 7]]) or the 23rd of Ponamos ([[October 7]])

The glorious and rich city Homer describes was believed to be Troy VI by many twentieth century authors, destroyed in [[1275 BC]], probably by earthquake. Its follower [[Troy VII]]a, destroyed by fire at some point during the 1180s BC, was long considered a poorer city, but since the excavation campaign of 1988 it has risen to the most likely candidate.

==Historicity of the Trojan War==
''See also: [[Historicity of the Iliad]]''
[[Image:Hittite Empire.png|thumb|right|250px|The Hittite Empire of Asia Minor in ca. [[1300 BC]] (light red)]]

The historicity of the Trojan War is still subject to debate. Homer's stories are believed by many to be the merging of military conflicts fought against Troy.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In his merging, he creates many characters out of gods and uses many [[metaphor]]s.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Most classical Greeks thought that the war was a historical event, but many believed that the Homeric poems had exaggerated the events to suit the demands of poetry. For instance, the historian [[Thucydides]], who is known for his critical spirit, considers it a true event but doubts that 1186 ships were sent to Troy. [[Euripides]] started changing Greek myths at will, including those of the Trojan War. Around 1870 it was generally agreed in Western Europe that the Trojan War never had happened and Troy never existed. Then [[Heinrich Schliemann]] discovered the ruins of Troy and of the [[Mycenae]]an cities of Greece. Today many scholars agree that the Trojan War is based on a historical core of a Greek expedition against the city of Troy, but few would argue that the Homeric poems faithfully represent the actual events of the war.

In the twentieth century scholars have attempted to draw conclusions based on [[Hittite]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] texts that date to the time of the Trojan War. While they give a general description of the political situation in the region at the time, their information on whether this particular conflict took place is limited. Hittite archives, like the [[Tawagalawa letter]] mention of a kingdom of ''Ahhiyawa'' (Achaea, or Greece) that lies beyond the sea (that would be the Aegean) and controls [[Milliwanda]], which is identified with [[Miletus]]. Also mentioned in this and other letters is the [[Assuwa]] confederation made of 22 cities and countries which included the city of ''[[Wilusa]]'' (Ilios or Ilium). The [[Milawata letter]] implies this city lies on the north of the Assuwa confederation, beyond the [[Seha]] river. While the identification of Wilusa with Ilium, that is Troy, is always controversial in the 1990's it gained majority acceptance. In the Alaksandu treaty (ca. [[1280 BC]]) the king of the city is named Alakasandu, and it must be noted that Paris' son of Priam's name in the ''Iliad'' (among other works) is Alexander. The [[Tawagalawa letter]] (dated ca. [[1250 BC]]) which is addressed to the king of Ahhiyawa actually says:
:''Now as we have come to an agreement on Wilusa over which we went to war...''

Formerly under the Hittites, the Assawa confederation defected after the [[battle of Kadesh]] between Egypt and the Hittites (ca. [[1274 BC]]). In 1230 BC hittite king [[Tudhaliya IV]] (ca. [[1240 BC]]–[[1210 BC]]) campaigned against this federation. Under [[Arnuwanda III]] (ca. [[1210 BC]]–[[1205 BC]]) the Hittites were forced to abandon the lands they controlled in the coast of the Aegean. It is possible that the Trojan War was a conflict between the king of Ahhiyawa and the Assuwa confederation. This view has been supported in that the entire war includes the landing in Mysia (and Telephus' wounding), Achilles' campaigns in the North Aegean and [[Ajax (mythology)|Telamonian Ajax's]] campaigns in Thrace and Phrygia. Most of these regions were part of Assuwa.<ref>Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek Nation) vol. A, Ekdotiki Athinon, Athens 1968</ref><ref name="Karykas"/> It has also been noted that there is great similarity between the names of the [[Sea Peoples]], which at that time were raiding Egypt, as they are listed by [[Ramesses III]] and [[Merneptah]], and of the allies of the Trojans.[http://www.phoenixdatasystems.com/goliath/c3/c3a.htm]

There is debate whether the communication network of the fire relays existed throughout the war and possibly worked both ways or it was an invention of Aeschylus. While there is evidence there was a fire-relay system in Greece in ancient or Byzantine times, there is no evidence that it was in place at the time of the Trojan War and Aescylus is the only surviving source that mentions it.

That most Achean heroes did not return to their homes and founded colonies elsewhere was interpreted by Thucydides as being due to their long absence.<ref>The Peloponnesian War 1.12.2</ref> Nowadays the interpretation followed by most scholars is that the Achean leaders driven out of their lands by the turmoil at the end of the Mycenean era preferred to claim descendance from exilees of the Trojan War.<ref>Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, The Returns</ref>

==Warfare==
Even though Mycene was a maritime power that managed to launch over a thousand ships and Troy at the very least had built the fleet with which Paris took Helen<ref>''Iliad'' 3.45–50</ref> no sea-battle takes place throughout the conflict and [[Phereclus]], the shipbuilder of Troy, fights on foot.<ref>''Iliad'' 5.59–65</ref>

The heroes of the ''Iliad'' are dressed in elaborate and well described armor. They ride to the battle field on a [[chariot]], throw a spear to the enemy formation and then dismount, use their other spear and engage in personal combat. [[Ajax (mythology)|Telamonian Ajax's]] carried a large tower-shaped shield (σάκος) that was used not only to cover him but also his brother:

:Ninth came Teucer, stretching his curved bow.
:He stood beneath the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon.
:As Ajax cautiously pulled his shield aside,
:Teucer would peer out quickly, shoot off an arrow,
:hit someone in the crowd, dropping that soldier
:right where he stood, ending his life—then he'd duck back,
:crouching down by Ajax, like a child beside its mother.
:Ajax would then conceal him with his shining shield.
: (''Iliad'' 8.267–272, translated by Ian Johnston)

Ajax's shield was heavy and difficult to carry. It was thus more suited for defence than offence. His cousin Achilles on the other hand had a large round shield that he used along with his famous spear with great success against the Trojans. Round or eight-sided was the shield of the simple soldier. Unlike the heroes they rarely had a breast-plate and relied exclusively on the shield for defence. They would form very dense formations:

:Just as a man constructs a wall for some high house,
:using well-fitted stones to keep out forceful winds,
:that's how close their helmets and bossed shields lined up,
:shield pressing against shield, helmet against helmet
:man against man. On the bright ridges of the helmets,
:horsehair plumes touched when warriors moved their heads.
:That's how close they were to one another.
: (''Iliad'' 16.213–7, translated by Ian Johnston)

Once Homer actually calls the formation phalanx though the true [[phalanx formation]] appears in the [[7th century BC]].<ref>''Iliad'' 6.6</ref> Was this the way that the true Trojan War was fought? Most scholars do not believe so.<ref>Tomas Cahill, Sailing the Wine Dark Sea, Why the Greeks Matter, New York 2003</ref> The chariot was the main weapon in battles of the time, like the battle of Kadesh. There is evidence from the Dendra armor and paintings at the palace of Pylus that the Acheans used two men chariots, with the principal rider armed with a long spear, unlike the Hittite three-men chariots whose riders were armed with shorter spears or the two men chariots armed with arrows used by Egyptians and Syrians. Homer is aware of the use of chariots as a main weapon. Nestor places his charioteers in front of the rest of his troop and tells them:

:In your eagerness to engage the Trojans,
:don't any of you charge ahead of others,
:trusting in your strength and horsemanship.
:And don't lag behind. That will hurt our charge.
:Any man whose chariot confronts an enemy's
:should thrust with his spear at him from there.
:That's the most effective tactic, the way
:men wiped out city strongholds long ago—
:their chests full of that style and spirit.
(''Iliad'' 4.301–309, translated by Ian Johnston)

For Homer this is the old style of fighting, used by the more backward and small kingdoms like Pylus. Nestor describes a battle between Pylus and Elis that took place when he was young that was mainly fought with chariots.<ref>Iliad Λ 670–760</ref>

Achilles uses his chariot to go behind enemy lines and attack the Trojans from behind thus bringing about a great massacre.<ref name=PK/> Karykas' believes that fighting on chariots was generally abandoned by the Acheans a little before the Trojan War and that Homer describes the battles as they took place.<ref name="Karykas"/> While the opinion that Homer is describing the war as it took place has appeared from time to time among modern Greek writers who were of the military profession<ref name=Konstas/> the vast majority of scholars believe Homer is describing how war was waged at the time he lived.

==Trojan War in art and literature==
{{main|Trojan War in art and literature}}
A full listing of works inspired by the Trojan War has not been attempted, since the inspiration provided by these events produced so many works that a list that merely mentions them by name would be larger than the full tale of the events of the war. The siege of Troy provided inspiration for many works of art, most famously [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', set in the last year of the siege. Some of the others include ''Troades'' by [[Euripides]], ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]'' by [[William Shakespeare]], ''[[Iphigenia]]'' and ''[[Polyxena]]'' by Samuel Coster, ''[[Palamedes]]'' by [[Joost van den Vondel]] and ''[[Les Troyens]]'' by [[Hector Berlioz]].

The war has also been featured in many books, films, television series, and other creative works.

==Notes==
<div class="references-2column">
<references/>
</div>

==References and further reading==
<div class="references-small">
===Ancient authors===
*[[Apollodorus]], ''Gods & Heroes of the Greeks: [[Bibliotheke|The Library of Apollodorus]]'', translated by Michael Simpson, The University of Massachusetts Press, (1976). ISBN 0-87023-205-3.
* Apollodorus, ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Apollod.+1.1.1 Apollodorus: The Library]'', translated by Sir James George Frazer, two volumes, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press and London: William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Volume 1: ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Volume 2: ISBN 0-674-99136-2.
*[[Euripides]], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Eur.+Andr.+1 ''Andromache''], in ''Euripides: Children of Heracles, Hippolytus, Andromache, Hecuba'', with an English translation by David Kovacs. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. (1996). ISBN 0-674-99533-3.
*Euripides, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Eur.+Hel.+1 ''Helen''], in ''The Complete Greek Drama'', edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 1. ''Helen'', translated by E. P. Coleridge. New York. Random House. 1938.
*Euripides, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Eur.+Hec.+1 ''Hecuba''], in ''The Complete Greek Drama'', edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 1. ''Hecuba'', translated by E. P. Coleridge. New York. Random House. 1938.
* [[Herodotus]], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+1.1.0 ''Histories''], [[A. D. Godley]] (translator), Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1920; ISBN 0-674-99133-8. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+1.1.1 Description of Greece]'', ([[Loeb Classical Library]]) translated by W. H. S. Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. (1918). Vol 1, Books I–II, ISBN 0-674-99104-4; Vol 2, Books III–V, ISBN 0-674-99207-5; Vol 3, Books VI–VIII.21, ISBN 0-674-99300-4; Vol 4, Books VIII.22–X, ISBN 0-674-99328-4.
* Proclus, ''Chrestomathy'', in [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Hesiod/cypria.html Fragments of the ''Kypria''] translated by H.G. Evelyn-White, 1914 (public domain).
* Proclus, ''[http://www.stoa.org/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Stoa:text:2003.01.0004 Proclus' Summary of the Epic Cycle]'', trans. Gregory Nagy.
* [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]], ''[[Posthomerica]]'', in [http://omacl.org/Troy/ ''Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy''], Arthur Sanders Way (Ed. & Trans.), Loeb Classics #19; Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA. (1913). (1962 edition: ISBN 0-674-99022-6).
*[[Strabo]], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Strab.+6.1.1 ''Geography'',] translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924)

===Modern authors===
* Burgess, Jonathan S. 2004. ''The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle'' (Johns Hopkins). ISBN 0-8018-7890-X.
* Castleden, Rodney. ''The Attack on Troy''. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen and Sword Books, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-84415-175-1).
* Frazer, Sir James George, ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Apollod.+1.1.1 Apollodorus: The Library]'', two volumes, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press and London: William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Volume 1: ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Volume 2: ISBN 0-674-99136-2.
* Graves, Robert. ''The Greek Myths'', Penguin (Non-Classics); Cmb/Rep edition (April 6, 1993). ISBN 0-14-017199-1.
* Kakridis, J., 1988. ''Ελληνική Μυθολογία'' ("Greek mythology"), Ekdotiki Athinon, Athens.
* Karykas, Pantelis, 2003. ''Μυκηναίοι Πολεμιστές'' ("Mycenean Warriors"), Communications Editions, Athens.
* Latacz, Joachim. ''Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery''. New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2005 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-926308-6).
* Simpson, Michael. ''Gods & Heroes of the Greeks: [[Bibliotheke|The Library of Apollodorus]]'', The University of Massachusetts Press, (1976). ISBN 0-87023-205-3.
* Strauss, Barry. ''The Trojan War: A New History''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7432-6441-X).
* {{ cite book | last=Thompson | first=Diane P | title=The Trojan War: Literature and Legends from the Bronze Age to the Present | location=Jefferson, NC | publisher=McFarland | id=ISBN 0-7864-1737-4 (paperback) }}
* ''Troy: From Homer's Iliad to Hollywood Epic'', edited by Martin M. Winkler. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4051-3182-9; paperback, ISBN 1-4051-3183-7).
* Wood, Michael. ''In Search of the Trojan War''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-21599-0); London: BBC Books, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-563-53415-X).
</div>

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Trojan War}}
*[http://www.archaeology.org/0405/etc/troy.html/ Was There a Trojan War?] Maybe so. From Archeology, a publication of the Archeological Institute of America. May/June 2004
*[http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/TrojanWar.html The Trojan War] at [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology Link]
*[http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/clas101/troy.HTM The Legend of the Trojan War]
*[http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_age/lessons/les/27.html The Historicity of the Trojan War] The location of Troy and possible connections with the city of Teuthrania.
*[http://www.videosofturkey.com/video_details.asp?id=77 Videos : Ruins of Ancient Troy City]

{{Epic Cycle}}

[[Category:People of the Trojan War]]
[[Category:Trojans]]
[[Category:Trojan War|*]]
[[Category:Wars involving ancient Greece|*]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]

[[ar:حرب طروادة]]
[[bs:Trojanski rat]]
[[bg:Троянска война]]
[[ca:Guerra de Troia]]
[[cs:Trojská válka]]
[[da:Den trojanske krig]]
[[de:Trojanischer Krieg]]
[[el:Τρωικός πόλεμος]]
[[es:Guerra de Troya]]
[[eo:Troja milito]]
[[fr:Guerre de Troie]]
[[ko:트로이아 전쟁]]
[[hr:Trojanski rat]]
[[is:Trójustríðið]]
[[it:Guerra di Troia]]
[[he:מלחמת טרויה]]
[[ka:ტროას ომი]]
[[la:Bellum Troianum]]
[[lt:Trojos karas]]
[[hu:Trójai háború]]
[[mt:Gwerra ta' Trojja]]
[[nl:Trojaanse Oorlog]]
[[ja:トロイア戦争]]
[[no:Den trojanske krig]]
[[pl:Wojna trojańska]]
[[pt:Guerra de Tróia]]
[[ro:Războiul troian]]
[[ru:Троянская война]]
[[scn:Guerra di Troia]]
[[simple:Trojan War]]
[[sk:Trójska vojna]]
[[sl:Trojanska vojna]]
[[sr:Тројански рат]]
[[fi:Troijan sota]]
[[sv:Trojanska kriget]]
[[ta:றோய்யன் போர்]]
[[vi:Chiến tranh thành Troy]]
[[tr:Truva savaşı]]
[[uk:Троянська війна]]
[[ur:ٹرائے کی جنگ]]
[[yi:טרויאנישער קריג]]
[[zh:特洛伊战争]]

Revision as of 18:01, 12 February 2007

I DID IT HaHAH

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