History of engraving

Melencolia I (1514) by Albrecht Dürer, Staatliche Kunsthalle Karlsruhe, Germany.

The history of engraving has developed parallel to that of other artistic manifestations, with roots dating back to prehistoric times, although its boom occurred in the modern and contemporary ages. Engraving (from the Greek γράφω, "to sculpt, to scratch") is a means of artistic expression through the mechanical reproduction of drawings or compositions of an aesthetic or communicative nature, using various techniques that allow the creation of a print on a sheet of paper pressed by hand or machine against an inked matrix. It is usually included in the graphic arts, which in turn are usually included in the decorative or applied arts.

As a technique, relief engraving is used in numerous artistic procedures -especially in the applied arts- such as glyptics, enameling, goldsmithing, numismatics and medallistics, but engraving is generally considered as a form of printing images with ink on a paper support. The basis of engraving is drawing, which is why it ideally demonstrates the capabilities of an artist in that art. On the other hand, as a popular means of dissemination, engraving has often been a vehicle for the transmission of political and social ideas, or simply poetic and aesthetic ones, and has greatly helped the dissemination of the work of artists. It has also contributed to the graphic dissemination of scientific knowledge, through the production of anatomical, topological, archaeological, zoological, botanical or similar engravings.

Christ healing the sick, known as the Hundred Guilder Print (c. 1647-1649), by Rembrandt, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

By etymology, "engraving" is both the art of tracing compositions by incision on the surface of a material and the result of that art, that is, the printing on a sheet of that incision, also called " stamping". Several people may be involved in the production process of an engraving, generally an artist who makes the composition and a craftsman who elaborates the technical process, although sometimes they may coincide. Generally, the draftsman signs in the lower left corner with the formula delin. (from delineavit, "drew") and the engraver on the right with sculps. (from sculpsit, "engraved"). A distinction can be made between compositions made by artists to be engraved, called "original engravings," and the reproduction of paintings by famous artists by other engravers, called "reproductions".

The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, engraving no. 43 of Los caprichos (1797), by Francisco Goya, Prado Museum, Madrid.

Although there are several procedures close to engraving used since prehistoric times, woodcut (wood engraving) is usually considered the oldest method, with exponents found as early as the 9th century in Chinese art. In Europe it spread from the Middle Ages onwards, not only in engravings but also on fabrics and playing cards. The oldest surviving plate comes from Dijon (France), dated around 1370, while the first surviving woodcut engraving is a St. Christopher from 1423 kept in the John Rylands Library in Manchester. Around 1430 chalcography (copper engraving) appeared, a technique of which the earliest surviving dated work is from 1446. In the 15th century, engraving became widespread and popular throughout Europe, since its serial reproduction allowed an economic cost accessible to a much larger population than painting, which was often reserved for the bourgeoisie, clergy and aristocracy. In the 16th and 17th centuries the most widely used method was etching, while in the 18th century lithography appeared. In Japan, silkscreen printing was developed in the 17th century, and reached Europe in the 19th century.

There are various engraving processes, which are used to produce a print obtained by means of a plate or matrix. Among them, three main techniques can be distinguished, depending on whether they are in relief (woodcut), chalcography (chalcography) or flat (lithography).

• Woodcut: wood engraving (generally cherry or boxwood), made on a sketch traced on the wooden plate and carved with a knife, gouge, chisel or burin, emptying the white wood and leaving the black ones in relief; it is then inked with a roller and stamped, either by hand or with the press.

• Chalcography: engraving on copper made in a hollow, in various techniques: etching, engraving technique consisting of treating the parts of the metal plate not protected by a varnish with "strong water" (nitric acid diluted in water); aquatint, technique that uses a metal plate covered with resin, which once heated adheres to the surface of the plate, then drawing on this surface with a special type of ink, called aquatint; intaglio, which is performed on copper plate, with a burin, with which the drawing is outlined, filling the grooves with ink; drypoint engraving, in this technique the plate is worked directly with a steel, diamond or ruby point, without resorting to varnishes or acids, with which rough lines called "burrs" are obtained, different according to the pressure and angle of incision, which, unlike the burin, does not cut the metal, but scratches it; half-ink engraving (mezzotint), the plate is worked with a multi-pointed scraper (rocker or berceau), obtaining a uniform graining by interlacing lines, which distinguishes light and dark tones.
• Lithography: it is an engraving on limestone, which is made by treating the surface with a grease pencil to delimit the drawing and making the engraving according to two procedures: bathing with acid, to corrode the ungreased part and leave the drawing in relief; or by applying two kinds of watery ink and grease, the first being fixed in the background and the second covering the lines drawn in pencil. It was invented by Aloys Senefelder in 1796.

Also worth mentioning are linocut, a relief engraving technique similar to woodcut, but using linoleum instead of wood; and silkscreen printing, a technique by which prints are obtained by filtering the colors through a silk -or, nowadays, nylon- weft, covering with glue the parts that should not be filtered in order to waterproof them. There are other less used techniques, such as electroetching, zinc engraving, pyrography, monotype and chromolithography, while in contemporary times printing methods such as offset, flexography, rotogravure and digital printing have emerged.

The history of engraving is not, as many people seem to think, that of a minor art form, but that of a very powerful method of communication among men and of its effects on the thought and civilization of Western Europe.

— William Ivins Jr.

Background

Venus of Laussel, relief engraved on limestone, found in Marquay (Dordogne) and preserved in the Museum of Aquitaine in Bordeaux (uncertain dating).

The background of engraving is to be found in the technique of incised relief, of which there are traces dating back to prehistoric times. Prehistoric art was the first manifestation of what can be considered artistic by humans.10 Probably one of the first artistic techniques used by prehistoric humans was hollow relief on hard surfaces with instruments such as flint, or relief engraving taking advantage of the irregularities and bulges in the rock, sometimes by extracting material as an additional aid to obtain the desired result. This sculptural relief was favorable to give the material the forms that the incipient artist wanted to express, creating a silhouette that could then be colored. Later, this incision was made in wood, metal or other materials (bone, ivory), and the drawings evolved from naturalistic forms to signs and abstract forms of diverse symbology, which in time also gave rise to writing.11

Among the various manifestations of Paleolithic rock art, it is worth remembering those of the caves of La Peña de Candamo (Asturias), Altamira (Cantabria), Morella la Vella (Castellón), Cogul (Lérida), Lorthet (Hautes-Pyrénées) and the caves of the Dordogne (Combarelles, Font de Gaume, Limeuil, Madeleine). Manifestations of rock art by primitive humans are also found on all continents, from Australia and Africa to America. Significant remains have been found in North Africa, such as in the oasis of Djebel Ouénat, between Libya and Sudan, or in Ain Safsaf (Oran). Already in the Neolithic period, stone polishing predominated, especially in megalithic monuments such as dolmens and menhirs, where geometric decoration (circles, spirals, lines, squares, triangles, zigzags) stood out. With the appearance of ceramics, the engraved incision had a special relevance to decorate the elaborated pieces, generally with the same geometric motifs. Metallic pieces such as fibulae, bracelets, weapons and other utensils were also decorated.12

Already in historical times, beginning with the appearance of writing, the so-called ancient art developed, which had its first manifestations in the great civilizations of the Near East (Egypt and Mesopotamia), as well as in the areas of the Indus and the Yellow River in China. In these cultures, relief engraving was used in ceramics, glyptics, metal arts and other minor and decorative arts, both geometric and figurative. In Egypt, beetle-shaped carvings were common, used as amulets, often engraved with the name of the owner and some kind of prayer or magic formula. In Chaldea, carved cylindrical seals were common, which were applied on wax or clay to leave their engraved imprint. They were usually decorated with religious and zodiacal motifs, as well as cuneiform inscriptions, and it was customary to bury them with their owners. This tradition was taken up by the Assyrians, who spread it to the surrounding lands. King Ashurbanipal possessed a library of clay pieces of great importance. In Persia these seals were made in a flat form, decorated with animal figures and everyday scenes. This culture spread to other surrounding peoples, such as the Hittites, Lycians, Phrygians, Phoenicians and Hebrews. Other engraved objects included jewelry, glass and metals.13

The East also saw the development of thriving civilizations that developed their own techniques and styles of engraving, usually done on stone, wood, pottery and metalwork objects. In Brahmanical India, naturalistic representations were common, while with the arrival of Buddhism, religious motifs took over. China was influenced by Buddhist art, adapted to that nation's own aesthetics, based on the imitation of nature -more evocative than realistic-, while Japan inherited Chinese culture in its beginnings.14

The culmination of the Ancient Age was the development of the Greek and Roman civilizations, stylistically encompassed in the so-called classical art, which laid the foundations of Western art. Their scientific, material and aesthetic advances contributed to the history of art a style based on nature and the human being, where harmony and balance, the rationality of forms and volumes, and a sense of imitation (mimesis) of nature prevailed, so that the recurrence to classical forms has been constant throughout the history of Western civilization.15

With antecedents in the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures, archaic Greek art was inspired by human, animal and plant forms, as well as motifs such as spirals, rosettes and circle arches, as well as axes, horns and other objects, present in ceramics, metalwork, glyptics, coins and gold and silver work. All this evolved towards the classical and Hellenistic phases of Greek art, in which the human figure and the representation of scenes from Greek mythology gained importance. Roman art was largely inherited from Greek art, whose culture was assimilated after the conquest of its territory. In ancient Rome, the engraved seal was of great importance, and authentic collections of carvings were created in cabinets called "dactylothecae". With a more mundane culture, the Romans preferred genre scenes and scenes from real life to the mythological images and great epics of the Greeks. From the second century A.D. onwards, these seals became talismans carved with cabalistic motifs, which were converted into religious images with the arrival of Christianity. In Roman times there are also testimonies that relate the elaboration of portraits on parchment that were produced in series with a currently unknown technique, whose invention is attributed to Marcus Terentius Varron, who owned a collection of seven hundred of these portraits. Also noteworthy during this period was the production of books, made on paper or parchment, which, together with the text, often included images, the antecedents of later printed engravings.16

Beginnings of engraving: China

Diamond Sutra (868), the oldest known complete and dated printed book in the world, British Library, London.

In China, printmaking began during the Tang dynasty (618-907), linked to the introduction of printing. As early as the Han period, Confucian scholars used stone plates to engrave texts and, occasionally, images. Later, it was the Buddhists who began to use wood to print images - usually Buddhas - by means of inked blocks applied to wet paper, which was the beginning of woodcutting. They used to make large print runs of these images, which were used as amulets. By printing engraved blocks on paper, the Chinese were five or six centuries ahead of the European printing press.17

The printing capital was Chengdu, where the first edition of the nine classics (953), the Buddhist Tripitaka (983) and the Taoist Canon were printed. In the Mogao caves in Dunhuang, archaeologist Marc Aurel Stein discovered the oldest complete and dated printed book in existence, the Diamond Sutra (British Library, London), which bears the date of its creation: "this book was printed on March 11, 868, by Wang Shish, to be distributed free of charge, as a gift, in order to perpetuate the memory of his parents". From then on, numerous poets and scholars commissioned the printing of their works, which became widespread during the Song dynasty (960-1279).17

Chinese woodblock prints were generally religious, devout images for temple worship. It was not considered to have artistic value, but was understood as an instrument of propaganda. It was usually done in black on white and sometimes colored by hand. Sometimes blue or red ink was used instead of black. Printmaking created a thriving industry, which evolved from religious images to the reproduction of paintings -generally portraits or landscapes- or images for fans or screens.18

Origins of Western engraving: the Middle Ages

St. Christopher (1423), John Rylands Library, Manchester, considered the earliest surviving woodcut engraving.

The origins of Western engraving occurred in the Middle Ages. It was a period marked by the feudalization of all the territories formerly administered by the Roman Empire. The new dominant cultures - of Germanic origin - reinterpreted classical art, while the new religion, Christianity, permeated most of medieval artistic production. The main artistic manifestations of this period were Romanesque and Gothic art.19

Virgin of Brussels, Royal Library of Belgium. Initially dated 1418, it was considered the oldest surviving engraving, although it was later dated to around 1460.

The appearance of engraving is of uncertain date and place of origin. It could probably derive from the manufacture of playing cards, whose elaboration evolved from the manufacture to the use of patterns and their stamping by means of adjusted wooden molds. This probably inspired the elaboration of images in imitation of the illuminated miniature, by means of several colored blocks that were fitted in one piece and stamped at once, a procedure known as camaïeu. These experiments gave rise to woodcutting, which was probably first practiced in the early 15th century in the Rhine region. Around 1440, the invention of the movable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg helped to mechanize and spread engraving procedures.20

In the late Middle Ages, engraving began to become popular in Europe: in the middle of the 14th century, linen waste began to be used to make paper in Italy - mainly Treviso, Padua and Fabriano - which provided a useful and cheap support for prints. At the same time, the technique of woodcutting began to spread and the distribution of prints began, generally biblical images and images of saints, made in monasteries by anonymous craftsmen. The oldest surviving engraving is a St. Christopher made in the Charterhouse of Buxheim (Germany) in 1423, preserved in the John Rylands Library in Manchester. The Virgin of Brussels (Royal Library of Belgium), initially dated 1418, was considered the oldest engraving, although it was later dated to around 1460. It shows the Virgin Mary and the Child Jesus with the four virgin martyr saints (Catherine of Alexandria, Barbara, Margaret of Antioch and Dorothea) in an hortus conclusus.1

Print from the Ars moriendi (c. 1450), by Master E. S., Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

The production of small religious images evolved towards the creation of large prints destined for altars or the illustration of books, such as the Biblia pauperum, the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis and the Ars moriendi. These images were of poor quality in terms of drawing, disproportionate, with a broad, hard line and without shades of chiaroscuro, but their candor denoted a certain naivety that made them attractive, like children's drawings.21

Coronation of the Virgin (1452), by Maso Finiguerra, Museo del Bargello, Florence.

Metal engraving appeared in the middle of the 15th century, at an uncertain date and place, as did wood engraving. It is usually attributed to the work of goldsmiths and there are various undocumented traditions about its origin: in Germany its invention is attributed to Martin Schoen, from Bavaria, or to Israel Mecheln, from Westphalia; in Italy it is attributed to Maso Finiguerra, a Florentine silversmith who in 1452 made a silver plate of the Coronation of the Virgin for the baptistery of St. John (now in the Bargello Museum). It is likely that the printing of these niello plates were tests of the goldsmiths' work to see the final result, at the same time as instructional material for the apprentices, and that the final objective was enameling; however, they would soon realize the possibilities of engraving using that technique.22

The center of medieval printmaking production was in Germany, Flanders and Burgundy, as well as to a lesser extent Italy. In its beginnings, the Flemish technique was superior to the Italian. It was developed in the Rhine lands, from the Netherlands to Basel (Switzerland), where the work of several masters known today, such as the Master of Cards, the Master of 1446 (because of a Flagellation of his dated in that year), Master E. S. or the Master of the Cabinet of Amsterdam, was outstanding.23

Page from Ulrich Boner's Der Edelstein, first printed book with pictures (1461).

At the beginning of the 15th century, the technique of burin engraving, generally performed by goldsmiths, was introduced in Germany and the Netherlands. A copper matrix was engraved with the burin, the concave parts were inked and a dampened sheet of paper was inserted into the inked grooves. The mark of the burin and the interpretation of the artist made it possible to confer a stylistic character to the intaglio engravings more than with woodcuts. The oldest surviving one is a Flagellation of 1466, preserved in Berlin.1

A great impulse to engraving was given with the creation of the letterpress printing press by Johannes Gutenberg, which allowed the serial edition of texts and images on paper, cloth or other materials. The first work printed by Gutenberg was a Bible (Mainz, 1449); in 1457, Gutenberg's partners Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer published the Mainz Psalter, which included for the first time initial letters engraved in wood; in 1461 a book with pictures was published for the first time, Ulrich Boner's The Precious Stone, edited in Bamberg by the printer Albrecht Pfister, which included one hundred and one illustrations; and in 1476 the first book with a frontispiece - a place suitable for the placement of pictures - was published, the Regiomontano Calendar, edited in Venice by the printer Erhard Ratdolt. 24

In the Netherlands and Flanders, culturally related, there was at that time a pictorial school of great importance -the so-called Flemish Gothic-, marked by the work of the brothers Jan and Hubert van Eyck. Haarlem was one of the first centers of production, with works of great quality such as the Speculum Humanæ Salvationis. Metal engraving was also developed in this area, especially with the work of Jacob Cornelisz. van Oostsanen and the so-called "Engraver of 1480" and "Master of the navette".25

God creating the world, from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493), by Hartmann Schedel, edited by Anton Koberger and illustrated by Michael Wolgemut and Hans Pleydenwurff.

In Germany, engraving had a wide acceptance and diffusion due to its scientific, analytical, realistic character, based on study and observation, at the same time that the possibilities of drawing were more suitable to its religious morality. It was also closely related to the printed book, as the Cologne Bible (1480), the Lübeck Bible (1484), the guide Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam (1486, Bernard of Breidenbach), the Treasury of Eternal Health (1491) and the Nuremberg Chronicles (1493, by Hartmann Schedel, edited by Anton Koberger and illustrated by Michael Wolgemut and Wilhelm Pleydenwurff) denote. Copperplate engraving also developed notably, with authors such as the so-called "Master of the card game", the "Master of 1464 or of the banners" and Master E. S., the latter one of the first renowned engravers, author of engravings such as the Adoration of the Magi, the Virgin of the Crescent Moon, the Child Jesus in the bath, Samson conquering the lion and the Virgin of Einsiedeln, with a naturalistic and emotive style, with a taste for detail and technical virtuosity.26 He was the teacher of Martin Schongauer, one of the first known names of artists dedicated to engraving, who notably improved intaglio engraving, with a great mastery of the burin and a regular impression of great technical perfection, with systematic carvings and great variety, and a sense of space that preludes the Renaissance effects.23 He was especially dedicated to religious themes: Adoration of the Kings, Death of the Virgin, The Temptation of St. Anthony, The Passion of Christ, The Apostles, The Annunciation, Flight into Egypt; he also produced some genre works, such as Exit to the Market and Group of Villagers at Play. He had several disciples and followers, such as the "Master of the monogram B. S.", Wenzel von Olmütz, Albrecht Glockendon and Israhel van Meckenem.27

The Temptation of St. Anthony (c. 1470-1475), by Martin Schongauer, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

In France, the main center of production was Lyon, where several engravers of Germanic origin had settled. An early exponent was Le Miroir de la Rédention Humaine (1478), a book with wood engravings of clear Germanic affiliation. Later, engraving spread to places such as Paris, Nantes and Angoulême, where works were produced in imitation of the miniature, with great importance given to the initial letters, sometimes made by hand. The main specialty produced at the time were the "books of hours", in whose production Simon Vostre and the Pigouchet workshops stood out. Other works of note were Le Roman de Fierabras (1480), the Missel de Verdun (1481), Belial ou la Consolation des pauvres pêcheurs (1484), the Danse macabre (1485), the Calendrier des Bergers (1491) and La Mer des Histoires (1488-1489 and 1491).28

In Italy, metal engraving appeared almost simultaneously with wood engraving, and both were closely linked to the printed book. The first illustrated book was Meditationes reverendissimi patris domini Johannis de Turrecremata, published in Rome in 1467. In Florence, intaglio engraving was preferred, as in Girolamo Savonarola's Predica dell'arte del ben morire (1496). In general, metal engraving was practiced by niello artists, such as Baccio Baldini and Pellegrino da Cesena. Baldini published Dante's Divine Comedy in Florence in 1481, with drawings by Sandro Botticelli. Numerous Italian artists also practiced engraving, but they were already stylistically situated in the Renaissance.29

In Spain, engraving was initially linked to book publishing. In 1480, the first book with engraved illustrations was published, the Fasciculus temporum by Werner Rolevinck, printed in Seville, with woodcuts by an anonymous artist. It was followed the next year by Arte de bien morir, printed in Zaragoza, with eleven woodcuts of Germanic tendency. Other examples were: Enrique de Villena's Works of Hercules (1483), Aesop's Fables (1489), Ramon Llull's Arbol Scientiae (1489), Joanot Martorell's Tirant lo Blanch (1490), Rodrigo Sánchez de Arévalo's Mirror of Human Life (1491), Cárcel de amor by Diego de San Pedro (1493), the Thesoro de la Passión by Andrés de Li (1494), Las Décadas de Tito Livio (1497), the Viaje de la Tierra Santa (1498) and De octo partibus orationis (1498); all by anonymous artists. Few examples of individual prints are preserved: by an anonymous artist, La rueda de la fortuna and El árbol de la vida are kept in the Biblioteca Nacional de España; a portrait of the Prince of Viana, dated around 1461, may be of Catalan origin. Only two prints by known authors are preserved: the Dominican friar Francisco Doménech, author of the intaglio La Mare de Déu del Roser, els Misteris del Rosari, els sants dominics i el "miracle del Cavaller de Colunya" (1488); and the Mallorcan Francisco Descós, author of a portrait of Ramon Llull (1493), in woodcut.30

• 
  Illustration from the Biblia pauperum.
• 
  Baptism of Christ (c. 1450), by Master E. S., Musée du Louvre, Paris.
• 
  The Inferno, illustration from the Divine Comedy (1481), by Baccio Baldini, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
• 
  Christ Carrying the Cross (c. 1485), from The Passion of the Christ series, by Martin Schongauer, Cooper Hewitt Smithsonian Design Museum, New York.
• 
  Illustration from Peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam (1486), by Bernard von Breidenbach.
• 
  The Virgin of the Rosary (1488), by Francisco Doménech.
• 
  Israhel van Meckenem and his Wife, Ida (c. 1490), by Israhel van Meckenem, Philadelphia Museum of Art.

Renaissance

Christ between St. Andrew and St. Longinus (c. 1470-1480), by Andrea Mantegna, Cleveland Museum of Art.

The Renaissance ushered in the Modern Age, a period of history that brought radical political, economic, social and cultural changes: the consolidation of centralized states led to the establishment of absolutism; the new geographical discoveries - especially the American continent - opened an era of territorial and commercial expansion, and marked the beginning of colonialism; the invention of the printing press led to a greater diffusion of culture, which was opened to all types of public; religion lost the preponderance it had in medieval times, which was helped by the rise of Protestantism; at the same time, humanism emerged as a new cultural trend, giving way to a more scientific conception of man and the universe. 31

The Renaissance was a style that emerged in Italy in the 15th century (Quattrocento), which spread throughout the rest of Europe from the end of that century and the beginning of the 16th century (Cinquecento). The artists were inspired by classical Greco-Roman art, which is why they spoke of an artistic "renaissance" after medieval obscurantism. It was a style inspired by nature, in which new models of representation emerged, such as the use of perspective. Without renouncing religious themes, the representation of human beings and their environment became more relevant.31 During this period, the graphic arts developed notably, especially thanks to the invention of the printing press. Most of the engraving techniques appeared or were perfected.32

Battle of the Nudes (1470-1480), by Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Cincinnati Art Museum.

The cradle of the Renaissance was Italy, a country where, as we have seen in the previous section, engraving began to be practiced later than in the Rhine countries, but which soon reached heights of great quality thanks to the genius of its artists, who in the 15th century initiated a revolution in the plastic arts of great relevance. The main center of production in the early days of Italian Renaissance engraving was Florence, where two styles emerged in the 15th century: the "fine style", produced by goldsmiths and strongly influenced by the technique of niello; and the "broad style", more used by artists and influenced by pen drawing.23 The latter was the framework for the "fine style", which was the main focus of the Italian Renaissance engraving movement. The latter includes the work of Antonio Pollaiuolo: he produced few engravings, but of great artistic quality, such as El combate de los centauros, Hércules y Anteo and El combate de los hombres desnudos, works that denote a great anatomical study of the human figure.33 The same style was also practiced by Andrea Mantegna, born in Padua, a skilled engraver, of classicist style and realistic cut, expressive and delicate, with sober and clean strokes, in religious and profane themes. Among his works stand out: The Virgin Mother, Christ between St. Andrew and St. Longinus, The Triumph of Julius Caesar, Bacchanalia and Combat of the Sea Gods. He had several disciples and imitators, such as Cima da Conegliano, Girolamo Mocetto and Giovanni Antonio da Brescia.34

Page from the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili by Francesco Colonna (1499), edition printed by Aldo Manucio, Venice.

Engraving was also developed in other Italian cities: in Venice the Manucio family (Aldo the Elder, Paulo and Aldo the Younger), owners of the so-called Aldina Printing House, created in 1494, where italic or "cursive" letters were invented. In 1499 they published Francesco Colonna's Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, a remarkable work with highly imaginative illustrations. Another notable illustrated book was De humani corporis fabrica by Andrés Vesalio (1543), an anatomical treatise illustrated by Jan van Calcar. In that city, the painter Tiziano Vecellio formed an outstanding workshop of engravers, in which the works of the distinguished artist were mainly reproduced. Also outstanding was the work of Ugo da Carpi, who introduced the camaïeu technique in Italy, in which he produced reproductions of works by Raphael, mainly. Giulio and Domenico Campagnola, Benedetto Montagna and Jacopo de'Barbari also worked in Venice.35 The French engraver Guillaume Le Signerre, author of the Practica Musicæ Franchini Gafori Laudems (1496), as well as the Life of Saint Veronica, made up of ten prints, was also active in Milan. In the Lombard capital, Leonardo da Vinci illustrated Luca Pacioli's treatise De divina proportione in 1498.36 Not very prolific in the field of engraving, his other prints were: Profile of a Young Girl, Knight Fighting and Three Horse's Heads.37

Illustration of a rhombicuboctahedron by Leonardo da Vinci for the treatise De divina proportione by Luca Pacioli, Milan (1498).

During Mannerism, the preferential use of etching spread, which stimulated freedom of line, virtuosity in execution and creative inspiration of the artist, providing results of an almost pictorial quality. One of its best exponents was Parmigianino. During this period a veritable engraving industry was formed in Rome, with companies dedicated to the intensive production of prints - such as Lafrery - and artists dedicated to the production of prints - often aimed at disseminating the work of the best Italian Renaissance painters - such as Marcantonio Raimondi, Giorgio Ghisi, Giulio Bonasone, Enea Vico, Diana Scultori, Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio and Beatricetto.38 Marcantonio Raimondi devoted himself to recording paintings by famous artists, especially Raphael, whose work he helped to spread throughout Europe. With a simple and clear style he outlined a new flexible and systematic language, which easily allowed the transposition of diverse compositions. Among his disciples, Agostino Veneziano stands out. A notable school developed in Mantua, marked by the influence of Giulio Romano, whose exponents include Giorgio Ghisi, author of reproductions of paintings, such as Raimondi.23 Another famous school was that of Bologna, led by the Carracci brothers (Annibale, Agostino and Ludovico), who developed a classicist style that lasted during the Baroque. They showed a certain Flemish influence, especially that of Cornelis Cort, in religious, mythological, historical and portrait subjects.39 The most gifted, Annibale, mixed etching with engraving, achieving a more intense outline of chiaroscuro. He made engravings of Veronese and Tintoretto, along with his own compositions.40

Knight, Death and the Devil (1513), by Albrecht Dürer, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

In Germany, engraving evolved from medieval Gothic to the new Renaissance style, with the main centers of production in Mainz, Bamberg, Cologne and Nuremberg, as well as Basel in Switzerland.41 The work of Albrecht Dürer, who combined the technical experience of medieval German engraving with the artistic innovations of the Renaissance, is noteworthy.42 His first woodcuts date from 1495. His first woodcuts date from 1495. He was later one of the first to experiment with etching, producing six engravings on iron.1 Dürer elevated engraving to heights of great quality, both technically and artistically. He used both wood and copper, with a drawing of great perfection and a great compositional sense that turned his works into authentic paintings. By varying the density and angle of the carvings, he was able to describe the worked surfaces with great precision, as in Adam and Eve (1504). He produced both isolated prints and series of engravings, such as Apocalypse (1498), Great Passion and Little Passion (1511) and Life of the Virgin (1511). In his last stage his style was simplified and he used other techniques such as drypoint (St. Jerome) and etching on steel (Garden of Olives).23 Dürer excelled both as an engraver and painter and his prints were widely distributed and popular, helping to a great extent to raise the prestige of the art of engraving.42

St. Jerome in his Study (1514), by Albrecht Dürer.

Among his most famous prints are: The Knight, Death and the Devil (1513), where a horseman in armor mounted on horseback encounters Death and the Devil on his way, in the form of monstrous figures;43 St. Jerome in his Cabinet (1514), where the saint appears in his study, with a sleeping dog and lion at his feet and a skull on a window sill, a symbol of the transience of life typical of the vanitas genre; 44 and Melancolia I (1514), a mysterious image featuring a winged woman as an allegory of Melancholy, a putto, a dog and various objects, including a sphere, a rhombohedron, an hourglass, a bell, a balance, a magic square and a bat with a cartouche with the text Melencolia I, with a landscape in the background where a comet and a rainbow can be glimpsed. 45 Other outstanding works of his are: Proposition of Love (1495), The Walk (1496), The Prodigal Son (1496), The Witches (1497), The Doctor's Dream (1497), The Sea Monster (1498), Hercules (1498), St. Eustace (1500), The Nemesis (1501), The Emblem of Death (1503), The Great Horse (1505), Dancing Peasants (1514), The Rhinoceros (1515), Rapture on the Unicorn (1516), The Cannon (1518) and Erasmus of Rotterdam (1526). 46

Dürer's disciples were Barthel Beham and Heinrich Aldegrever. The former was a notable portraitist, although it was in engraving that he achieved great success, especially with small popular scenes.47 Aldegrever was a painter, engraver and goldsmith influenced by Flemish painting and by Dürer, author of religious, mythological and portrait subjects.48

The Rest on the Flight to Egypt, by Lucas Cranach the Elder, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Other outstanding artists also practiced engraving, such as Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Holbein the Younger. The former was an excellent draughtsman, whose compositions he was able to transfer to engraving with great mastery, in works such as St. George, The Apostles, Venus, Adam and Eve, Rest in the Flight into Egypt, Sufferings of the Martyrs and several portraits of Martin Luther (1520-1521). Holbein stood out for a drawing of great purity, of classical style and naturalistic tendency, with a simple, precise and dynamic line, in works such as Dance of the Dead (1538).49

Pyramus and Thisbe (1514), by Lucas van Leyden, National Gallery of Art, Washington D. C.

It is also worth mentioning the work of other German artists: Albrecht Altdorfer, who worked in woodcut and etching, with a spontaneous style, confident stroke and delicate workmanship (St. Jerome, St. Christopher, Crucifixion);50 Hans Baldung Grien, with a naturalistic style, original and of great creative force, author of religious, mythological, realistic and fantastic themes; 51 Hans Burgkmair, of Italianizing tendency, one of the introducers of Renaissance novelties in his country, combined painting with woodcut, in which he made the series Triumph for Maximilian I (1515-1919) and prints such as Strangling Death, which stands out for its chiaroscuro;52 Niklaus Manuel, Swiss painter of heterogeneous style, author of the series of the Foolish Virgins and Prudent Virgins (1518); 53 Urs Graf, also Swiss, made about three hundred engravings of spontaneous line and realistic inspiration, generally of women and soldiers, with sharp drawing and somewhat crisp line; 54 and Johann Ulrich Wechtlin (also called Pilgrim or "Master of the crossed beads"), who was influenced by Dürer and produced works of classical inspiration, with a certain roughness but with drawing precision,55 and who is considered the inventor of camaïeu,56 a type of chiaroscuro woodcut achieved by means of several wooden matrices that were successively stamped on paper, obtaining a result similar to pen drawing. 57 Finally, the names of Jost Amman, Hans Sebald Beham, Daniel and Hieronymus Hopfer, Georg Pencz and Virgil Solis should also be mentioned.58

The Deluge (1544), by Dirck Vellert, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

In the Netherlands, the work of Lucas van Leyden was outstanding. His youthful work, of great originality, does not denote any known affiliation. They are generally genre scenes, of great refinement. Later he was influenced by Dürer and Raimondi.23 Among his works, the following stand out: The Resurrection of Lazarus, David and Saul, Esther before Ahasuerus, Triumph of Mordecai, The Return of the Prodigal Son, Pyramus and Thisbe, St. Peter and St. Paul and The Villagers on a Journey.59 There was also the engraving of translations of paintings in the style of Raimondi, initiated by Hieronymus Cock, engraver and publisher, who brought Giorgio Ghisi to Antwerp and published the works of Brueghel, Frans Floris and Martin van Heemskerck. Brueghel's landscapes engraved by Cock are the first of the genre in Europe. One of his disciples, Cornelis Cort, settled in Italy and was employed by Titian to engrave his works. Another outstanding engraver was Hendrik Goltzius, in whose school the engravers who worked for Rubens were trained.40 The brothers Hieronymus, Antonius and Johan Wierix were authors of prints of excellent technique and detail, although based on other people's compositions.32 In book illustration, the work of Crispijn van de Passe, Lodewijk Elzevier and Cristóbal Plantino is worth mentioning. 60 Other exponents were Dirck Vellert, Jan Gossaert, Bernard van Orley and Pieter Coecke.23

Divina Tvtela, illustration from Humanae salutis monumenta (1571), by Benito Arias Montano, with drawings by Pieter van der Borcht engraved by Abraham de Bruyn, Pieter Huys and the Wierix brothers, Biblioteca Nacional de España.

In France, engraving passed from the Germanic influence of the Middle Ages to the Italian, thanks mainly to the group of Italian artists that Francis I brought to the works of the palace of Fontainebleau. The so-called Fontainebleau school developed a broad artistic program under the direction, mainly, of the Italian painters Rosso Fiorentino and Primaticcio, in an eclectic style that brought together Italian, Flemish and French influences. A workshop of engravers was formed - mainly etchers - which included, among others, René Boyvin, Geoffroy Dumonstier and Léonard Limosin. In the book field, Geoffroy Tory favored the transition from Gothic to Roman letters and the use of ornamental decoration based on Italian grotesques. Later, artists such as painters Jean Cousin and Jean Clouet, sculptors such as Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon, and architects such as Philibert de l'Orme, Jean Bullant and Pierre Lescot practiced engraving. It is worth mentioning Bernard Salomon, who practiced an Italianate ornamental style, delicate drawing and small compositions, with multiple characters and fantasy elements, as can be seen in his illustration of the Emblems of Andrea Alciato (1547). Jean Duvet, famous for his series of the Apocalypse (1561), also enjoyed fair fame. Other engravers of the period were Nicolas Béatrizet, Georges Reverdy and Étienne Dupérac.

Illustration of the Apocalypse (1561), by Jean Duvet.

In Spain, the Renaissance was of slow penetration and at the beginning of the 16th century the Gothic forms still survived. Engraving was largely linked to the illustration of books, such as the Crónica de San Fernando and the Vida de Santa María Magdalena, printed in Valencia in 1505; the Leyenda de Santa Catalina de Siena, which appeared in the same city in 1511; the Exemplario contra los engaños, published in Zaragoza in 1515; Vita Christi, published in Barcelona in 1527; the Vida y Milagros de la Santa Virgen, printed in Toledo in 1536; and Flor dels Sants, a Barcelona edition of 1565. The publication of engravings of saints also continued, as in the medieval period.62

Among the names of Spanish engravers of the century it is worth remembering: Pedro Ángel, a silversmith and water-engraver from Toledo, author of the portraits of Cardinals Tavera and Cisneros; Juan de Vingles, woodcutter, author with the calligrapher Juan de Icíar of Arte subtilissima por la qual se enseña a escrivir perfectamente (Zaragoza, 1550); and Pedro Perret, a Flemish engraver established in Madrid, author of Sumaria y breve declaración de los diseños y estampas de la fábrica de San Lorenzo del Escorial (1589), with text by Juan de Herrera.63 Also worth mentioning are Antonio de Arfe, son of the silversmith of the same name, a Florentine-influenced woodcutter, author of Vida y fábulas exemplares del Natural Filósofo y Famossísimo Fabulador Esopo (1586), a translation of Aesop's fables illustrated by himself; and his brother Juan de Arfe, goldsmith and engraver, who worked in wood and metal, and illustrated his treatise Quilatador de oro, plata y piedras (1572).64

During this century printing was transplanted to the Spanish colonies in America: in 1532 Viceroy Mendoza installed one in Mexico and, in 1535, the first book was published, La Escala espiritual, the work of the typographer Esteban Martín. In Peru it was carried by Antonio Ricardo in 1584, and the first book published was the Catechism of Christian Doctrine. Printing was also very important in the Spanish possessions in Flanders, where numerous works were published in Spanish, especially religious, military, scientific and literary books, as well as atlases. Among these editions was the Biblia Sacra Hebraice, Chaldaice, Græce & Latine by Benito Arias Montano (1568-1572), printed by Cristóbal Plantino. By Arias himself was the Humanæ salutis monumenta (1571), with drawings by Pieter van der Borcht engraved by Abraham de Bruyn, Pieter Huys and the Wierix brothers.65

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  Knight and Halberdier (c. 1510), by Hans Wechtlin.
• 
  Lucretia (c. 1510-1511), engraving by Marcantonio Raimondi on a design by Raphael.
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  Rhinoceros (1515), by Albrecht Dürer, British Museum, London.
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  Diogenes (c. 1524-1529), by Ugo da Carpi.
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  Respice Finem (c. 1530), by Heinrich Aldegrever, British Museum, London.
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  Death and the physician, from the series Dance of the Dead (1538), by Hans Holbein the Younger.
• 
  Illustration from De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius (1543), illustrated by Jan van Calcar.
• 
  The Academy of Baccio Bandinelli (c. 1544), by Enea Vico, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
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  St. Michael slaying the dragon (1584), by Hieronymus Wierix.
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  Christ of Caprarola (1597), by Annibale Carracci, National Gallery of Art, Washington D. C.