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Some forms of yayue survived for imperial ceremonies and rituals until the fall of the [[Qing dynasty]] when the imperial period of China came to an end. ''Yayue'' however was still performed as part of a Confucian ritual in China until the Communist takeover in 1949 when it completely disappeared. There has been a revival in ''yayue'' in Confucian ritual in Taiwan since the late 1960s, and in mainland China since the 1990s.<ref name="frederick lau">{{cite book |author=Frederick Lau |title=Music in China |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0195301243 |pages=118–121}}</ref> A major research and modern reconstruction of ''yayue'' of the imperial court was initiated in Taiwan in the 1990s, and in mainland China a performance of ''yayue'' music in 2009 by [[Nanhua University]]'s ''yayue'' music ensemble in [[Beijing]] also spurred interest in this form of music.<ref name="sui">{{cite news |author=Cindy Sui |date=September 1, 2011 |title=The Melodies of the Emperors |work=Taiwan Today |url=http://taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=174112&ctNode=124&mp=9}}</ref> There are however questions over the authenticity of these revived and recreated ''yayue'' music and dances, especially the use of modern forms of instruments and various substitutions rather than the more ancient and original forms, nonetheless some argued that such music and dances have always changed over time through succeeding dynasties, and that any changes introduced in the modern era should be seen in this light.<ref name="sui" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMu6p0JPrvQC&pg=PA131 |title=Music and Ritual |publisher=Semar Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-8877780867 |editor=Keith Howard |page=131}}</ref>
Some forms of yayue survived for imperial ceremonies and rituals until the fall of the [[Qing dynasty]] when the imperial period of China came to an end. ''Yayue'' however was still performed as part of a Confucian ritual in China until the Communist takeover in 1949 when it completely disappeared. There has been a revival in ''yayue'' in Confucian ritual in Taiwan since the late 1960s, and in mainland China since the 1990s.<ref name="frederick lau">{{cite book |author=Frederick Lau |title=Music in China |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0195301243 |pages=118–121}}</ref> A major research and modern reconstruction of ''yayue'' of the imperial court was initiated in Taiwan in the 1990s, and in mainland China a performance of ''yayue'' music in 2009 by [[Nanhua University]]'s ''yayue'' music ensemble in [[Beijing]] also spurred interest in this form of music.<ref name="sui">{{cite news |author=Cindy Sui |date=September 1, 2011 |title=The Melodies of the Emperors |work=Taiwan Today |url=http://taiwantoday.tw/ct.asp?xItem=174112&ctNode=124&mp=9}}</ref> There are however questions over the authenticity of these revived and recreated ''yayue'' music and dances, especially the use of modern forms of instruments and various substitutions rather than the more ancient and original forms, nonetheless some argued that such music and dances have always changed over time through succeeding dynasties, and that any changes introduced in the modern era should be seen in this light.<ref name="sui" /><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMu6p0JPrvQC&pg=PA131 |title=Music and Ritual |publisher=Semar Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-8877780867 |editor=Keith Howard |page=131}}</ref>

=== Qin to Qing dynasty ===
{{See also|Musicians in Ming China}}
[[File:Paintings_on_north_wall_of_Xu_Xianxiu_Tomb.jpg|left|thumb|260x260px|A mural from the tomb of Xu Xianxiu in [[Taiyuan]], [[Shanxi]] province, dated 571 AD during the [[Northern Qi Dynasty]], showing male court musicians playing stringed instruments, either the ''[[liuqin]]'' or ''[[pipa]]'', and a woman playing a ''[[konghou]]'' (harp)]]
The [[Music Bureau|Imperial Music Bureau]], first established in the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–207 BC), was greatly expanded under the emperor [[Emperor Wu of Han|Han Wudi]] (140–87 BC) and charged with supervising court music and military music and determining what folk music would be officially recognized. In subsequent dynasties, the development of Chinese music was influenced by the musical traditions of Central Asia which also introduced elements of Indian music.<ref name="Sino-Indian Relations p.76">A History of Sino-Indian Relations: 1st Century A.D. to 7th Century A.D. by Yukteshwar Kumar. p.76 {{ISBN|978-8176487986}}</ref><ref>Journal of Music in China, Volume 4, p.4</ref> Instruments of Central Asian origin such as [[pipa]] were adopted in China, the Indian [[Heptatonic scale]] was introduced in the 6th century by a musician from Kucha named Sujiva, although the heptatonic scale was later abandoned.<ref>India and China: Interactions through Buddhism and Diplomacy: A Collection of Essays by Professor Prabodh Chandra Bagchi . p.210 {{ISBN|978-9380601175}}</ref><ref>History of Civilizations of Central Asia edited by Unesco</ref><ref name="Sino-Indian Relations p.76" />
[[File:Gu_Hongzhong's_Night_Revels_2.jpg|right|thumb|500x500px|A half-section of the [[Song dynasty]] (960&#x2013;1279) version of the ''Night Revels of Han Xizai'', the original was by [[Gu Hongzhong]] in the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]] (907&#x2013;960);<ref name="ebrey cambridge 148">[[Patricia Buckley Ebrey|Patricia Ebrey]] (1999), ''Cambridge Illustrated History of China'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 148.</ref> the female musicians in the center of the image are playing [[Dizi (instrument)|transverse bamboo flutes]] and ''[[Guan (instrument)|guan]]'', and the male musician is playing a wooden clapper called ''paiban''.]]
The oldest extant written Chinese music is "[[Jieshi Diao Youlan|Youlan]]" (幽蘭) or the Solitary Orchid, composed during the 6th or 7th century, but has also been attributed to Confucius. The first major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was for the [[Guqin|qin]] during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618-907AD), though the qin is known to have been played since before the Han dynasty. This is based on the conjecture that because the recorded examples of Chinese music are ceremonial, and the ceremonies in which they were employed are thought to have existed "perhaps more than one thousand years before Christ",{{sfn|Van Aalst|1884|loc=}}{{Page needed|date=October 2013}} the musical compositions themselves were performed, even in 1000 BC, in precisely the manner prescribed by the sources that were written down in the seventh century AD. (It is based on this conjecture that Van Aalst dates the "Entrance Hymn for the Emperor" to c. 1000 BC.){{sfn|Van Aalst|1884|loc=}}{{Page needed|date=October 2013}}
[[File:Guqin-Yangguan_Sandie.ogg|left|thumb|Yangguan Sandie [Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme], one of the great Tang masterpieces found in the Qinxue Rumen (1867) played on qin.]]
Through succeeding dynasties over thousands of years, Chinese musicians developed a [[List of Chinese musical instruments|large assortment]] of different instruments and playing styles. A wide variety of these instruments, such as [[guzheng]] and [[Dizi (instrument)|dizi]] are indigenous, although many popular traditional musical instruments were introduced from Central Asia, such as the [[erhu]] and [[pipa]].

The presence of European music in China appeared as early as 1601 when the Jesuit priest [[Matteo Ricci]] presented a [[Harpsichord]] to the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] imperial court, and trained four eunuchs to play it.<ref name="Jones">Jones. Andrew F. [2001] (2001). Yellow Music — CL: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age. Duke University Press. {{ISBN|0-8223-2694-9}}.</ref> During the late [[Qing dynasty]] era, the influence of Western music began to be felt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Liu |first=Jingzhi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AjE3HNO7j3kC&pg=PA7 |title=A Critical History of New Music in China |publisher=The Chinese University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-9629963606}}</ref>


== See Also ==
== See Also ==

Revision as of 11:44, 22 July 2022

This article is about Chinese social system based around dance. For the dance itself, see Yayue.

The Ritual Music System [zh] 礼乐制度 originated in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Together with the patriarchal system [zh], it constituted the social system of the entire ancient China and had a great influence on the politics, culture, art and thought of later generations.[1] According to legend it was founded by the Duke of Zhou and King Wu of Zhou.[2][3][4][5][6][7]

The Ritual Music System is divided into two parts: ritual and music. The part of ritual mainly divides people's identity and social norms, and finally forms a hierarchy. The music part is mainly based on the hierarchical system of etiquette, using music to alleviate social conflicts.[1]

The Ritual Music System was established by Duke Zhou in the early days of the Zhou Dynasty. One of its purposes was to consolidate the hierarchical society, and secondly, it was to learn from the demise of the Shang Dynasty, to oppose "promiscuous music", and to adopt measures of "festive music". The implementation of the ritual music system consolidated the social status of the slave-owner class and promoted the development of music. But it makes music a vassal of ritual, and makes music a mode music centered on ritual, which gradually becomes rigid. In order to implement "rule", the ruling class formulated a set of very cumbersome etiquette and music to match it.[1]

The regulations on ritual and music strengthened people's concept of hierarchy, played a symbolic role in establishing authority, alongside standardizing rule across the civilization.[1]

Predecessors

A 9,000 year-old bone flute from Henan

Archaeological evidence indicates that music culture developed in China from a very early period. Excavations in Jiahu Village in Wuyang County, Henan found bone flutes dated to 9,000 years ago, and clay music instruments called Xun thought to be 7,000 years old have been found in the Hemudu sites in Zhejiang and Banpo in Xi'an.[8]

Bowl from the Majiayao culture (c.3300 - 2000 BC) decorated with figures of men dancing in line

Pictorial representations of dance have been found in Chinese pottery as early as the Neolithic period (before 2000 BCE), showing people dancing in a line holding hands.[9] The earliest Chinese character for "dance", , appears in the oracle bones and represents a dancer holding oxtails in each hand.[10] According to the Lüshi Chunqiu (compiled around 239 BCE): "In former times, the people of the Getian clan (葛天氏) would dance in pairs [or threes] with oxtails in hand, stamping their feet and singing eight stanzas."[5][11]

Primitive dance in ancient China was also associated with sorcery and shamanic ritual. An early shape of the Chinese character for sorcerer, wu (巫), represented dancing shamans or their sleeves;[12] wu therefore described someone who danced as a mean of communication between gods and men.[13] There are many ancient records of shamans and sorcerers who danced, for example performing the rain dance at time of drought. The rain dance (舞雩, wǔyú) platform is mentioned in many ancient texts including the Analects of Confucius.[14]

Zhou Institution

Main article: Yayue
Further information: History of Chinese dance

According to tradition, yayue was created by the Duke of Zhou under commission from King Wu of Zhou, shortly after the latter's conquest of Shang. Incorporated within yayue were elements of shamanistic or religious traditions, as well as early Chinese folk music. Dance was also closely associated with yayue music, each yayue pieces may have a ceremonial or ritual dance associated with it. The most important yayue piece of the Zhou dynasty were the Six Great Dances, each associated with a legendary or historical figure.[2][3][4][5][6][7]

  • Yunmen Dajuan (雲門大卷), from the Yellow Emperor era, performed for the veneration of the sky.
  • Daxian (大咸, or Dazhang 大章), from the Emperor Yao era, for the veneration of the earth.
  • Daqing (大磬, or Dashao 大韶), from the Emperor Shun era, for the veneration of Gods of the Four Directions, or the sun, moon, stars and seas, the dancers may have dressed up as birds and beasts. One of the earliest documents, Shujing, mentioned the ritual of "beating on the stones as all the wild animals dance".[15][16] The performance of the dance was highly regarded by Confucius.
  • Daxia (大夏), was a dance performed in praise of Yu the Great of the Xia dynasty, famous for his work on flood control. In this dance, 64 performers danced bare-chested wearing fur caps and white skirts. The movements of the dance may imitate the manual labour performed during flood control.[17]
  • Dahu (大濩), from Tang of Shang dating to the end of the Xia Dynasty, for the veneration of female ancestors.
  • Dawu (大武), in praise of King Wu of Zhou, used for ancestral worship. It was military focused in addition

These formal dances were divided into two types, civil and military. In a Civil Dance (文舞), dancers held item such as feather banners in their hand, and Military Dance (武舞) involved brandishing of weapons.[18]

Another six formed what was called the "Small Dances", to be performed by younger members of the aristocracy in minor ceremonies and sacrifice rituals. These are:[19]

  • Five-Colour Silk Dance (帗舞), performed for the worship of the Earth and Grain Gods.
  • Feather Dance (羽舞), as tribute to ancestral temples or the Gods of the Four Directions.
  • Imperial Dance (皇舞), performed as homage to the Gods of the Four Directions or as a rain dance.
  • Yak-tail Banner Dance (旄舞), performed at sacrificial sites in Biyong (辟雍), a seat of learning.
  • Shield Dance (干舞), performed for military purpose or for the veneration of mountains and rivers.
  • Dance of the People (人舞), performed in honour of the stars or ancestral temples.

All the dances involved dancers holding objects such as feather plumes, yak-tails or shield, except the Dance of the People which is focused on sleeve movements.[20]

A set of bronze bells called bianzhong c. 5th century B.C. from Hubei

During the Zhou dynasty, a formal system of court and ceremonial music later termed yayue (meaning "elegant music") was established. Note that the word music (樂, yue) in ancient China can also refer to dance as music and dance were considered integral part of the whole, and its meaning can also be further extended to poetry as well as other art forms and rituals.[21] The word "dance" (舞) similarly also referred to music, and every dance would have had a piece of music associated with it. The most important set of music of the period was the Six-dynasty Music Dance (六代樂舞) performed in rituals in the royal court.[22] Music in the Zhou Dynasty was conceived as a cosmological manifestation of the sound of nature integrated into the binary universal order of yin and yang, and this concept has enduring influence later Chinese thinking on music.[23] "Correct" music according to Zhou concept would involve instruments correlating to the five elements of nature and would bring harmony to nature. Around or before the 7th century BC, a system of pitch generation and pentatonic scale was derived from a cycle-of-fifths theory.[23]

The Book of Rites records a number of situations where yayue might be performed. These included ceremonies in honour of Heaven and Earth, the gods or the ancestors. There were also detailed rules on the way they were to be performed at diplomatic meetings. Yayue was also used in outdoor activities, such as aristocratic archery contests, during hunting expeditions, and after the conclusion of a successful military campaign. Yayue was characterised by its rigidity of form. When performed, it was stately and formal, serving to distinguish the aristocratic classes. It was sometimes also accompanied by lyrics. Some of these are preserved in the Book of Songs.

Spring and Autumn Period reactions

With the decline of the importance ceremony in the interstate relations of the Spring and Autumn period, so did yayue. Confucius famously lamented the decline of classical music and the rites. Marquess Wen of Wei was said to prefer the popular music of Wey and Zheng to the ancient court music, listening to which he may fall asleep.[24][25] Confucius, faced with the social chaos of the Spring and Autumn period, strongly advocated the restoration of the Ritual Music System of the Western Zhou, and advocated "restoring rituals to oneself". social problems and realize a harmonious society in which the world is "righteous".[26]

Chinese philosophers took varying approaches to music. To Confucius, a correct form of music is important for the cultivation and refinement of the individual, and the Confucian system considers the formal music yayue to be morally uplifting and the symbol of a good ruler and stable government.[27] Some popular forms of music, however, were considered corrupting in the Confucian view.[28] Mozi on the other hand condemned making music, and argued in Against Music (非樂) that music is an extravagance and indulgence that serves no useful purpose and may be harmful.[29] According to Mencius, a powerful ruler once asked him whether it was moral if he preferred popular music to the classics. The answer was that it only mattered that the ruler loved his subjects.

Confucius not only advocated and advocated the restoration of the Ritual Music System, but also practiced it physically. Legend has it that he asked Laozi about rituals and became so obsessed with music that he "did not know the taste of meat for three months".[citation needed]

The Shijing or Classic of Poetry

Confucius heavily promoted the use of music with rituals or the rites order. The scholar Li Zehou argued that Confucianism is based on the idea of rites. Rites serve as the starting point for each individual and that these sacred social functions allow each person's human nature to be harmonious with reality. Given this, Confucius believed that "music is the harmonization of heaven and earth; the rites is the order of heaven and earth". Thus the application of music in rites creates the order that makes it possible for society to prosper.[30]

The Confucian approach to music was heavily inspired by the Shijing and the Classic of Music, which was said to be the sixth Confucian classic until it was lost during the Han Dynasty. The Shijing serves as one of the current Confucian classics and is a book on poetry that contains a diversified variety of poems as well as folk songs. Confucius is traditionally ascribed with compiling these classics within his school.[31] In the Analects, Confucius described the importance of the art in the development of society: [32]

The Master said, "My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry?
"The Odes serve to stimulate the mind.
"They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation.
"They teach the art of sociability.
"They show how to regulate feelings of resentment.
"From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one’s father, and the remoter one of serving one’s prince.
"From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants."[33]


In ancient China the social status of musicians was much lower than that of painters, though music was seen as central to the harmony and longevity of the state. Almost every emperor took folk songs seriously, sending officers to collect songs to record the popular culture. One of the Confucianist Classics, The Classic of Poetry, contained many folk songs dating from 800 BC to about 400 BC.[citation needed]

Attempts at revival

Much of the yayue of the Zhou dynasty continued into the Qin dynasty. However, some pieces appeared to have been lost or were no longer performed by the Han dynasty, and the content and form of yayue was modified in this as well as the succeeding dynasties. During the Tang dynasty components of popular music were added to yayue.[34] However, the dominant form of music in the Sui and Tang court was the entertainment music for banquets called yanyue (燕樂),[35] and the term yayue became reserved for the music of Confucian rituals used in temples of the Imperial Family and the nobility as well as in Confucian temples.[36]

During the Song dynasty, with Neo-Confucianism becoming the new orthodoxy, yayue was again in ascendancy with major development, and a yayue orchestra in this era consisted of over 200 instrumentalists.[37] Two important texts from the Song dynasty describing yayue performances are Zhu Xi's Complete Explanation of the Classic of Etiquette and Its Commentary (儀禮經傳通解) and Collection of Music (樂書) by Chen Yang (陳暘).[38] In 1116, a gift of 428 yayue instruments as well as 572 costumes and dance objects was given to Korea by Emperor Huizong upon request by the Emperor Yejong of Goryeo.[39] As a result, elements of Song dynasty yayue music such as melodies are still preserved in Korea.

Yayue in a Confucian ritual
A short excerpt of a historical recording of yayue c. 1925 used in a Confucian ritual before such music disappeared from mainland China.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

Some forms of yayue survived for imperial ceremonies and rituals until the fall of the Qing dynasty when the imperial period of China came to an end. Yayue however was still performed as part of a Confucian ritual in China until the Communist takeover in 1949 when it completely disappeared. There has been a revival in yayue in Confucian ritual in Taiwan since the late 1960s, and in mainland China since the 1990s.[40] A major research and modern reconstruction of yayue of the imperial court was initiated in Taiwan in the 1990s, and in mainland China a performance of yayue music in 2009 by Nanhua University's yayue music ensemble in Beijing also spurred interest in this form of music.[41] There are however questions over the authenticity of these revived and recreated yayue music and dances, especially the use of modern forms of instruments and various substitutions rather than the more ancient and original forms, nonetheless some argued that such music and dances have always changed over time through succeeding dynasties, and that any changes introduced in the modern era should be seen in this light.[41][42]

Qin to Qing dynasty

See also: Musicians in Ming China
A mural from the tomb of Xu Xianxiu in Taiyuan, Shanxi province, dated 571 AD during the Northern Qi Dynasty, showing male court musicians playing stringed instruments, either the liuqin or pipa, and a woman playing a konghou (harp)

The Imperial Music Bureau, first established in the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC), was greatly expanded under the emperor Han Wudi (140–87 BC) and charged with supervising court music and military music and determining what folk music would be officially recognized. In subsequent dynasties, the development of Chinese music was influenced by the musical traditions of Central Asia which also introduced elements of Indian music.[43][44] Instruments of Central Asian origin such as pipa were adopted in China, the Indian Heptatonic scale was introduced in the 6th century by a musician from Kucha named Sujiva, although the heptatonic scale was later abandoned.[45][46][43]

A half-section of the Song dynasty (960–1279) version of the Night Revels of Han Xizai, the original was by Gu Hongzhong in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960);[47] the female musicians in the center of the image are playing transverse bamboo flutes and guan, and the male musician is playing a wooden clapper called paiban.

The oldest extant written Chinese music is "Youlan" (幽蘭) or the Solitary Orchid, composed during the 6th or 7th century, but has also been attributed to Confucius. The first major well-documented flowering of Chinese music was for the qin during the Tang dynasty (618-907AD), though the qin is known to have been played since before the Han dynasty. This is based on the conjecture that because the recorded examples of Chinese music are ceremonial, and the ceremonies in which they were employed are thought to have existed "perhaps more than one thousand years before Christ",[48][page needed] the musical compositions themselves were performed, even in 1000 BC, in precisely the manner prescribed by the sources that were written down in the seventh century AD. (It is based on this conjecture that Van Aalst dates the "Entrance Hymn for the Emperor" to c. 1000 BC.)[48][page needed]

Yangguan Sandie [Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme], one of the great Tang masterpieces found in the Qinxue Rumen (1867) played on qin.

Through succeeding dynasties over thousands of years, Chinese musicians developed a large assortment of different instruments and playing styles. A wide variety of these instruments, such as guzheng and dizi are indigenous, although many popular traditional musical instruments were introduced from Central Asia, such as the erhu and pipa.

The presence of European music in China appeared as early as 1601 when the Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci presented a Harpsichord to the Ming imperial court, and trained four eunuchs to play it.[49] During the late Qing dynasty era, the influence of Western music began to be felt.[50]

See Also

维基文库中的相关文本： 《欽定古今圖書集成·經濟彙編·禮儀典·禮樂總部》，出自蒋廷锡《古今圖書集成》

Category:Ancient institutions in East Asia Category:Ancient Chinese institutions

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  3. ^ a b Wang Kefen (1985). The History of Chinese Dance. China Books & Periodicals. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0835111867.
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  35. ^ Alan Robert Thrasher (2008). Sizhu Instrumental Music of South China: Ethos, Theory and Practice. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 61. ISBN 978-9004165007.
  36. ^ Peter Fletcher (2004). World Musics in Context: A Comprehensive Survey of the World's Major Musical Cultures. Oxford University Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0195175073.
  37. ^ Don Michael Randel, ed. (2003). The Harvard Dictionary of Music (4th ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 261–262. ISBN 978-0674011632.
  38. ^ Keith Howard (2012). Music As Intangible Cultural Heritage: Policy Ideology and Practice in the Preservation of East Asian Traditions. Ashgate. ISBN 978-1409439073.
  39. ^ Keith Howard (2012). Music As Intangible Cultural Heritage: Policy Ideology and Practice in the Preservation of East Asian Traditions. Ashgate. ISBN 978-1409439073.
  40. ^ Frederick Lau (2007). Music in China. Oxford University Press. pp. 118–121. ISBN 978-0195301243.
  41. ^ a b Cindy Sui (September 1, 2011). "The Melodies of the Emperors". Taiwan Today.
  42. ^ Keith Howard, ed. (2007). Music and Ritual. Semar Publishers. p. 131. ISBN 978-8877780867.
  43. ^ a b A History of Sino-Indian Relations: 1st Century A.D. to 7th Century A.D. by Yukteshwar Kumar. p.76 ISBN 978-8176487986
  44. ^ Journal of Music in China, Volume 4, p.4
  45. ^ India and China: Interactions through Buddhism and Diplomacy: A Collection of Essays by Professor Prabodh Chandra Bagchi . p.210 ISBN 978-9380601175
  46. ^ History of Civilizations of Central Asia edited by Unesco
  47. ^ Patricia Ebrey (1999), Cambridge Illustrated History of China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 148.
  48. ^ a b Van Aalst 1884.
  49. ^ Jones. Andrew F. [2001] (2001). Yellow Music — CL: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2694-9.
  50. ^ Liu, Jingzhi (2010). A Critical History of New Music in China. The Chinese University Press. ISBN 978-9629963606.
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