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=== Trade in body parts for traditional medicine ===
=== Trade in body parts for traditional medicine ===


Vulture body parts are used in some cultures to treat physical and mental illnesses.<ref name="Ogada" /> The prices of vulture meat and body parts have been rising, possibly due to an increased demand for these products or a reduced supply of vultures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saidu |first1=Yohanna |last2=Buij |first2=Ralph |date=2018-03-29 |title=Traditional medicine trade in vulture parts in northern Nigeria |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/vulnew/article/view/168913 |journal=Vulture News |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=4 |doi=10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.1 |issn=1606-7479}}</ref> The current level of trade is not sustainablet and is contributing to the decline of vulture populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McKean |first1=Steven |last2=Mander |first2=Myles |last3=Diederichs |first3=Nicci |last4=Ntuli |first4=Lungile |last5=Mavundla |first5=Khulile |last6=Williams |first6=Vivienne |last7=Wakelin |first7=James |date=2013 |title=The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/vulnew/article/view/168914 |journal=Vulture News |language=en |volume=65 |pages=15–36 |doi=10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.2 |issn=1606-7479}}</ref>
Vulture body parts are used in some cultures to treat physical and mental illnesses.<ref name="Ogada" /> The prices of vulture meat and body parts have been rising, possibly due to an increased demand for these products or a reduced supply of vultures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saidu |first1=Yohanna |last2=Buij |first2=Ralph |date=2018-03-29 |title=Traditional medicine trade in vulture parts in northern Nigeria |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/vulnew/article/view/168913 |journal=Vulture News |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=4 |doi=10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.1 |issn=1606-7479}}</ref> The current level of trade is not sustainable and is contributing to the decline of vulture populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McKean |first1=Steven |last2=Mander |first2=Myles |last3=Diederichs |first3=Nicci |last4=Ntuli |first4=Lungile |last5=Mavundla |first5=Khulile |last6=Williams |first6=Vivienne |last7=Wakelin |first7=James |date=2013 |title=The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/vulnew/article/view/168914 |journal=Vulture News |language=en |volume=65 |pages=15–36 |doi=10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.2 |issn=1606-7479}}</ref>


=== Electrocution ===
=== Electrocution ===

Revision as of 09:47, 5 September 2022

A poisoned Eurasian griffon found in the Moroccan Atlas Mountains, 1991

The African vulture crisis is the name given to the ongoing population decline in several vulture species across Africa. Steep population declines have been reported from many locations across the continent since the early 2000s. The causes are mainly poisoning from baited animal carcasses, and the illegal trade in vulture body parts for traditional medicine.[1] Available data suggest that the African vulture crisis may similar in scale to the Indian vulture crisis, but more protracted and less well documented.[1]

Causes

Poisoning

Animal carcasses may be poisoned with toxic pesticide.[1] This may be from deliberate targeting of vultures -- for example, poachers of elephants and rhinos will target vultures to eliminate their tell-tale overhead circling that might expose their illegal activities.[1] Carcasses are also poisoned to kill carnivores blamed for predation of livestock,[1] herbivores blamed for crop destruction[2] and to control feral dog numbers.[1]

Vultures are particularly vulnerable to poisoning because of their foraging behaviors and life history traits.[3] They are obligate scavengers that primarily consume animal carcasses and waste products. Most vulture species forage in large groups, so many individual birds may be poisoned by a single carcass.[4] Even if a poisoned carcass does not kill vultures it can have a harmful effect. Sublethal exposure can affect their reproductive success, behavior, physical characteristics, and immune response.[5] Their long life spans and high trophic level also make them vulnerable to bioaccumulation of poisons over time.

Trade in body parts for traditional medicine

Vulture body parts are used in some cultures to treat physical and mental illnesses.[1] The prices of vulture meat and body parts have been rising, possibly due to an increased demand for these products or a reduced supply of vultures.[6] The current level of trade is not sustainable and is contributing to the decline of vulture populations.[7]

Electrocution

Vulture collisions with energy infrastructure and electrocution are relatively common, especially in southern and northern Africa.[1] Efforts to meet United Nations Sustainable Development Goals have led to expansion of electrification programs. However, these do not always implement bird-safe designs that would limit the risks of electrocution and collision.[8]

Other causes

Other threats that may contribute to the decline in African vulture populations include: habitat degradation and fragmentation, disturbance of nest sites, declines in vulture food supply, and bushmeat consumption by humans.[1] Deaths of vultures have also been caused by them drinking water from wells and becoming waterlogged. In one incident, this caused 15 Eurasian griffons to drown.[9]

Regions affected

North Africa

A lammergeier nestling from Algeria

Excluding vagrants, three vulture species still exist in North Africa: the griffon vulture, lammergeier, and Egyptian vulture. Two other species (the cinereous vulture and lappet-faced vulture) have now died out from the region.[10]

The Egyptian vulture is found across North Africa, while the Eurasian griffon is restricted to the Atlas mountains. The lammergeier is eradicated from the region except Morocco, where it is considered critically endangered.[11]

The most affected species is the Eurasian griffon,[12] though it is apparently common in much of Europe and Asia. Many poisonings in the region are attributed to the use of strychnine, which is heavily regulated by the Moroccan government.[13]

West Africa

A hooded and white-headed vulture feeding on a dead dog in Gambia. Their importance in their ecological niche is ridding it of corpses

Eight vulture species live in West African countries: the Egyptian vulture, griffon vulture, hooded vulture, lappet-faced vulture, palm-nut vulture, Rüppell's vulture, white-backed vulture and white-headed vulture.[14]

West Africa saw some of the largest decreases in vulture numbers, with up to 61% of vultures inside parks and 70% outside parks disappearing in the 30 years between 1970 and 2000.[15] Some populations have declined by almost 97%.[16] In 2020, around 50 hooded vultures were poisoned in Gambia, and between September 2019 and March 2020, 2000 were killed in Guinea-Bissau for traditional medicine.[15] Conservation programs were initiated in these countries and in Senegal, surveying the vulture populations and raising public awareness.[16]

Consequences and implications

Vultures play an essential ecological role in Africa. As a primary scavenger they contribute to the destruction of harmful pathogens and removal of decaying corpses form the environment, which may limit water contamination and the spread of disease from animal carcasses.[17] Falls in vulture numbers in India led to increased numbers of feral dogs and increased rabies incidence,[18] showing a potential threat for human health in Africa.

Affected species

Image Common name Binomial name Region 2006 IUCN conservation status 2006 IUCN Average Population estimate 2021 IUCN conservation status 2021 IUCN Average Population estimate
Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus Europe, Asia, Morocco, and Algeria Least concern [19] ~100,000 Least concern [20] 80,000 - 900,000
Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus Afro-Eurasia Least concern [21] ~6,000 Near-threatened [22] ~5,000
Cape vulture Gyps coprotheres Southern Africa Vulnerable [23] ~9,000 Vulnerable [24] ~12,000
Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus Afro-Eurasia Endangered [25] ~44,000 Endangered [26] ~24,000
Lappet-faced vulture Torgos tracheliotos Sub-Saharan Africa and Arabia Vulnerable [27] ~8,500 Endangered [28] ~6,500
White-headed vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis Sub-Saharan Africa Least concern [29] ~9,750 Critically endangered [30] ~6,250
Hooded vulture Necrosyrtes monachus Sub-Saharan Africa Least concern [31] ~265,000 Critically endangered [32] ~131,000
Rüppell's vulture Gyps ruppellii Sub-saharan Africa Least concern [33] ~30,000 Critically endangered [34] 22,000
White-backed vulture Gyps africanus Sub-Saharan Africa Least concern [35] ~270,000 Critically endangered [36] "believed to have decreased by magnitudes"

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ogada, Darcy; Shaw, Phil; Beyers, Rene; Buji, Ralph; Murn, Campbell; Thiollay, Jean Marc; Beale, Colin; Holdo, Ricardo; Pomeroy, Derek; Baker, Neil; Krüger, Sonja (2015). "Another Continental Vulture Crisis: Africa's Vultures Collapsing Toward Extinction". Conservation Letters. 9 (2): 89–97. doi:10.1111/conl.12182. S2CID 54684268 – via Society for Conservation Biology.
  2. ^ Safford, Roger; Andevski, Jovan; Botha, Andre; Bowden, Christopher G. R.; Crockford, Nicola; Garbett, Rebecca; Margalida, Antoni; Ramírez, Iván; Shobrak, Mohammed; Tavares, José; Williams, Nick P. (March 2019). "Vulture conservation: the case for urgent action". Bird Conservation International. 29 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1017/S0959270919000042. ISSN 0959-2709. S2CID 91384130.
  3. ^ Houston, David C. (1996), "The Effect of Altered Environments on Vultures", Raptors in Human Landscapes, Elsevier, pp. 327–335, doi:10.1016/b978-012100130-8/50033-x, ISBN 9780121001308, retrieved 2022-07-10
  4. ^ Tsiakiris, Rigas; Halley, John M.; Stara, Kalliopi; Monokrousos, Nikos; Karyou, Chryso; Kassinis, Nicolaos; Papadopoulos, Minas; Xirouchakis, Stavros M. (2021-10-18). "Models of poisoning effects on vulture populations show that small but frequent episodes have a larger effect than large but rare ones". Web Ecology. 21 (2): 79–93. doi:10.5194/we-21-79-2021. ISSN 2193-3081. S2CID 239045468.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ Gangoso, Laura; Álvarez-Lloret, Pedro; Rodríguez-Navarro, Alejandro. A.B.; Mateo, Rafael; Hiraldo, Fernando; Donázar, José Antonio (February 2009). "Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources". Environmental Pollution. 157 (2): 569–574. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2008.09.015. PMID 18995938.
  6. ^ Saidu, Yohanna; Buij, Ralph (2018-03-29). "Traditional medicine trade in vulture parts in northern Nigeria". Vulture News. 65 (1): 4. doi:10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.1. ISSN 1606-7479.
  7. ^ McKean, Steven; Mander, Myles; Diederichs, Nicci; Ntuli, Lungile; Mavundla, Khulile; Williams, Vivienne; Wakelin, James (2013). "The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa". Vulture News. 65: 15–36. doi:10.4314/vulnew.v65i1.2. ISSN 1606-7479.
  8. ^ Oppel, Steffen; Ruffo, Alazar Daka; Bakari, Samuel; Tesfaye, Million; Mengistu, Solomon; Wondafrash, Mengistu; Endris, Ahmed; Pourchier, Cloé; Ngari, Alex; Arkumarev, Volen; Nikolov, Stoyan C. (June 2022). "Pursuit of 'sustainable' development may contribute to the vulture crisis in East Africa". Bird Conservation International. 32 (2): 173–187. doi:10.1017/S0959270921000307. ISSN 0959-2709. S2CID 243002738.
  9. ^ "Fifteen Griffon Vultures found dead in a well in Morocco". Vulture Conservation Foundation. Retrieved 10 July 2020.
  10. ^ "Vultures of Northwest Africa: a complete list". MaghrebOrnitho. 21 August 2014. Retrieved May 17, 2022.
  11. ^ "Status of Bearded Vulture in Morocco". MaghrebOrnitho. 28 November 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  12. ^ Garrido, Jose Rafael (April 2014). "Poisoning of vultures in Morocco. International Workshop African Vultures & Poison --- Ronda, Málaga, Spain 8--11 April 2014". Academia. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  13. ^ Amezian, Mohamed; El Khamlichi, Rachid (2016). "Significant population of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus found in Morocco" (PDF). Ostrich. 87 (1): 73--76. doi:10.2989/00306525.2015.1089334.
  14. ^ Di Vittorio, M.; Hema, E.M.; Dendi, D; et al. (2018). "The conservation status of West African vultures: An updated review and a strategy for conservation". Vie et Milieu-Life and Environment. 68 (1): 33--43.
  15. ^ a b Henriques, Mohamed; Buij, Ralph; Monteiro, Hamilton; Sá, Joaozinho (2020). "Deliberate poisoning of Africa's vultures". Science. 370 (6514): 304.
  16. ^ a b "Tackling vulture population declines in West Africa". Bird Life International. 28 October 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  17. ^ Ogada, Darcy L.; Keesing, Felicia; Virani, Munir Z. (February 2012). "Dropping dead: causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide: Worldwide decline of vultures". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1249 (1): 57–71. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06293.x. PMID 22175274. S2CID 23734331.
  18. ^ Bindra, Prerna Singh. "Declining vulture population can cause a health crisis". Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  19. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Gyps fulvus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695219A28833002. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  20. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Gyps fulvus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695219A157719127. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695219A157719127.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  21. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Gypaetus barbatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695174A28822726. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  22. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Gypaetus barbatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695174A154813652. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695174A154813652.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  23. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Gyps coprotheres". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695225A28840216. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  24. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Gyps coprotheres". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695225A197073171. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695225A197073171.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  25. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Neophron percnopterus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695180A31604607. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  26. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Neophron percnopterus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695180A205187871. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695180A205187871.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  27. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Torgos tracheliotos". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695238A205352949. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695238A205352949.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  28. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Torgos tracheliotos". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695238A205352949. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695238A205352949.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  29. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Gyps africanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695189A28820816. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  30. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Gyps africanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695189A204461164. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695189A204461164.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  31. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Necrosyrtes monachus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695185A31460087. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  32. ^ BirdLife International. (2017) [amended version of 2017 assessment]. "Necrosyrtes monachus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T22695185A118599398. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22695185A118599398.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  33. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Gyps rueppelli". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695207A28842119. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  34. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Gyps rueppelli". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695207A204723468. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695207A204723468.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  35. ^ BirdLife International. (2008). "Gyps africanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T22695189A28820816. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  36. ^ BirdLife International. (2021). "Gyps africanus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695189A204461164. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695189A204461164.en. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
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