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Visionary architecture is a design that exists only on paper or that displays idealistic or impractical qualities. The term originated from an exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in 1960.^[1] Visionary architects are also called paper architects because their improbable works exist only as drawings, collages, or models.^[2]^[1]^[3] Their designs show unique, creative concepts that are unrealistic or impossible except in the design environment.^[1]^[4]

Traditionally, the term visionary refers to a person who has visions or sees things that do not exist in the real world, such as a saint or someone who is mentally unbalanced.^[5] Thus, the term visionary architecture is somewhat pejorative and has been used to marginalize paper architects from the mainstream.^[5] However, an article in Forbes noted, "Whereas ordinary architecture literally shapes the way in which we live, unrealized plans and models provide infrastructure for our collective imagination. They are meeting places for conversation."^[6]

Visionary architecture was discussed and celebrated at the Architecture of Disbelief symposium at Cornell University in 2008.^[2]^[7] Prominent modern and pre-modern visionary architects include Etienne-Louis Boullée, Peter Eisenman, Zaha Hadid, Rem Koolhaas, Daniel Libeskind, Antonio Sant'Elia, and Lebbeus Woods.^[8]^[6]^[1]

*The Smoking Fire* from *The Imaginary Prisons* by Giovanni Battista Piranesi, 1761 edition

History and early works

During the Renaissance period, building styles evolved rapidly because of the introduction of perspective.^[9] This discovery allowed architects to experiment with imaginary architectural scenes. While many architects wrote on the subject, others articulated their concepts and ideas in their drawings. In the 16th century, a Dutch painter and architect, Jan Vredeman de Vries, produced numerous engravings that portrayed new forms of architecture.^[10] His architectural designs were pure fantasy and imagination but were also regarded as avant-garde architectural spaces.^[10]

Most architects imagine, see, and define buildings by fabricating models that can be scaled up and down, turning abstract architectural sketches into solid three-dimensional buildings.^[11] When turned into scaled models, visionary designs were considered utopian and fantastic.^[12] Rather than bringing the building into existence, visionary architects use scale models to make the building speak through a sense of fantasy and symbolic meanings.^[12]

Some visionary architects skipped the model process entirely, believing that drawing is "the highest form and clearest expression of architecture."^[2]Giovanni Battista Piranesi was one of the greatest printmakers of the 18th century.^[10] The prints Piransi made of his architectural drawings show his mastery of imagined spaces.^[10] These drawings fit the definition of visionary architecture because Piranesi's drawings included unique and intricate details that were only achievable in drawings and would be lost in translation to physical structures.^[10] As an example, his The Prisons (Carceri d'invenzione) or Imaginary Prisons from 1745 depicts labyrinthine monumental spaces and mysterious machines.^[10]

Most visionary architecture of the 18th century centered around projects of immense size that "defied both man's comprehension and his building techniques."^[13] Claude Nicolas Ledoux is known for his utopian designs, including a visionary design for the City of Chaux around the Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans.^[14] Ledoux developed an entire master plan for Chaux, along with architectural drawings, elevations, and sections of various individual buildings. Ledoux also designed a tube-shaped house for the director of the waterworks at the source of Loiie river, c. 1773 to 1779.^[13]

Jean-Jacques Lequeu is one of the more eccentric and shocking of the early visionary architects.^[15] After the French Revolution ended his chance to become an architect, he worked as a civil servant, cartographer, surveyor, and draftsman.^[15] However, he spent most of his time preparing an unpublished treatise, Architecture Civile, which features ornaments and fragments of architectural drawings and a series of his fanciful architectural designs.^[15] These designs typically show an elevation or section of a building, but rarely an entire design.^[15] One of his visionary designs was a stable shaped like a cow.^[13]

Étienne-Louis Boullée was an 18th century visionary neo-classical architect.^[16] He was an influential architectural theorist because he taught at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and elsewhere for fifty years.^[16] Later in his career, Boullée designs showed an abstraction of geometric forms, removing all unnecessary ornamentation and inflating geometric forms to a huge scale.^[16] In his La Théorie Des Corps, he discussed the properties of geometric forms such as the cube, cylinder, pyramid, and sphere and their effect

on the senses.^[16] He believe the sphere was the "ideal form".^[16]

The early motion picture industry had an impact on architecture, especially the films Metropolis and Just Imagine which showed elaborate, imaginative, and futuristic architectural sets.^[10] Hugh Ferriss is one visionary architect who was influenced by Hollywood.^[10]

In the 20th century, visionary architects surfaced in repressed societies where young architects had little hope of seeing their designs realized.^[1] Visionary architecture of this era is divided into three main movements: German expressionism, Italian futurism, and Russian constructivism.^[17] The Germans turned to visionary paper architecture after World War I.^[17] One example is the Bruno Taut design for the Cosmic Carousel in 1920, a spherical structure that had radar-like propellers.^[17] Antonio Sant'Elia was a key influencer of the futurism movement in Italy, although most of his work was on paper and was not built.^[18] He designed mountainous buildings with bridges and towers connecting spaces.^[18]

Russian constructivism also emerged after World War I, and leaned toward "openwork, pavilion-like structures with strident placards and public-address systems."^[17] Russian constructivist designs relate to visionary architectural designs from the 18th century in "the overt symbolism of their various elements" and a tendency toward immense buildings.^[17] One outstanding example of this style is the Vesnin brothers' design for the Palace of the Soviets, with its immense size and mechanization through projections at each levels.^[17] Another example, also by the Vesnin brothers, was the proposed building for Pravda which they covered in signboards and news communication instruments.^[17] In addition, Vladimir Tatlin designed a monument for theThird Congress or Communist International, a 1,300 feet (400 m) tall rotating spiral that wraps around Vera Mukhina’s Monument to Worker and Farmer.^[17]^[19] Tatlin was literally recalling the metaphor for the Russian Revolution as a spiral.^[17]

In 1960, Arthur Drexler curated an exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City that showcased the designs of visionary architects.^[1] Drexler not gave a name to visionary architecture, but he also called attention to the importance of this work.^[1] He organized the exhibit based on three themes: geometry, mountains and caves, and roads or bridges.^[1] He included work by the architects Le Corbusier, Louis Kahn, William Katavolos, Frederick John Kiesler, Hans Poelzig, Paolo Soleri, and Michael Webb.^[1]

The Metropolitan Museum of Art hosted the exhibit "Visionary Architects" in 1968.^[12] Curated by Jean Adhemar and J. C. Lemagny of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris, this exhibit included 147 architectural drawings of late 18th-century French architects who "rebelled against the traditional ideas of their contemporaries."^[12]

Post-World War II

Visionary architecture expanded after World War II.^[1] During this time, visionary architects tended to create designs that either anticipated the future or exaggerated and distorted existing structures.^[1]

The Archigram Group

The Archigram Group was a British art collective that explored avant-garde and visionary architecture from 1961 to 1974.^[6] Its members were Warren Chalk, Peter Cook, Dennis Crompton, David Greene, Ron Herron, and Michael Webb.^[20] Their work focused on the future of urban development without the restraint of a client.^[20] Many of their designs were inspired by a visit to Cape Kennedy.^[20] One of Archigram's most outlandish designs was Cook's Plug-In City from 1964.^[6] Cook envisioned moveable living units or pods that were easily relocated by communal cranes.^[6] The pod's owner could move around the city and plug into the infrastructure at will.^[6] Herron came up with the Walking City, a city that did not have a fixed location because it could easily relocate by moving on its legs.^[6] Archigram's work was almost exclusively visionary; its only designs that were constructed were a swimming pool for Rod Stewart and a playground in Buckinghamshire.^[6]

Douglas Darden

After receiving a master's degree from the Harvard School of Design and attending the Parsons School of Design, Douglas Darden began his career by teaching and publishing works of paper architecture.^[21] His visionary designs showed what he referred to as narrative architecture—designs inspired by works of literature, such as Melvilla which was inspired by his love of Moby-Dick by Herman Melville.^[22] Because his designs were often executed by working from anti-theses of architectural principles, he described his work as exploring the margin or the "underbelly."^[21] One of his best known projects was the 1993 book, Condemned Building: An Architect's Pre-Text.^[22]

Peter Eisenman

Peter Eisenman is a deconstructivist theorist who believes that architecture should be disharmonious or even nonfunctional because this would "make people think rather than feel".^[23] He called his work "cardboard architecture" and once said, "I would never live in anything I design."^[23] He designed a series of experimental houses, several which were built, that showed the reality of his statement.^[23] For example, House IV had a glass strip that prevented a double bed in the main bedroom and a column that abutted the dining table.^[23] His most ambitious design was the City of Culture in Santiago de Compostela, a huge cultural complex that echoes the forms of the nearby mountains, appearing to roll up from the landscape.^[23] Another project that incorporates his visionary, deconstructivist style is the Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, Germany.^[23]

Hermann Finsterlin

Hermann Finsterlin is considered to be one of the most radical of the German expressionist architects, known for producing carbuncular studies of unbuildable and obscure buildings.^[10] His visionary drawings focused on perspectives, playing with unusual, organic shapes.^[10] Finsterlin's architectural drawings are among the purest paper buildings ever developed and would require the most ingenious engineering to construct because his designs go against their form.^[10]

Zaha Hadid

Zaha Hadid was a British-Iraqi architect known for deconstructivist designs with fantastic shapes.^[24] Her geometric designs have a sense of movement, fragmentation, and instability.^[24] However, most of her designs in the 1980s and 1990s were not constructed.^[24] One of her significant buildings is the Lois & Richard Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art in Cincinnati, Ohio, essentially "a vertical series of cubes and voids".^[24] She also designed the MAXXI museum of contemporary art and architecture in Rome.^[24]

Walter Jonas

Walter Jonas is a Swiss-German painter who designed Intrapolis for West Germany in the 1970s.^[6] Intrapolis consisted of housing units shaped like funnels and made of stacked concentric circles.^[6] Jonas said that his funnel-shaped buildings minimized ground contact and "save valuable soil".^[6] Intrapolis was never constructed because West Germany lacked the funds.^[6] One writer notes, "Jonas's funnels question the assumption that urban residences ought to be refuges from the cities in which we live, and encourage us to consider more holistic options. The Intrapolis captivates us precisely because it's so bizarrely different from anything in our experience. It belongs to an alternate reality that we can visit to escape the built-in assumptions of our everyday environment."^[6]

Rem Koolhaas

Rem Koolhaas moved to Manhattan, New York in 1972 where he developed a fascination with the city.^[25] He began to examine the dynamics that constructed the city, resulting in his manifesto, Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan, that outlines his theory of Manhattanism.^[25] Koolhaas saw a symbiotic relationship between Manhattan's "culture of congestion" and its architecture, arguing that the architecture generated the culture.^[26] His book is also a spatial project, using the narrative sequence and typographic layout to mimic the space effectively.^[27]

Daniel Libeskind

Daniel Libeskind is most know for his design for Jewish Museum Berlin and the redesign of the World Trade Center site in Manhattan.^[28] However, before those projects he was an academic for sixteen years and only had two other constructed building credits.^[28] Libeskind advocates for buildings that are beautiful and also communicate an historical and cultural context.^[28] His visionary designs include floor plans of destroyed buildings and sketches of piles of sticks.^[28] Libeskind calls these efforts in "exploring space".^[28]

Russian paper architects

In the 1980s, a group of Russian architects emerged from the Moscow Institute of Architecture, united by what Yuri Avvakumov had previously dubbed the paper architecture.^[3]^[19] The slang name "paper architecture" was meant to be negative, referring to design projects that were unfit for construction.^[3] These visionary architects included Alexander Asadov, Evgeni Ass, Yuri Avvakumov, Alexey Bavykin, Mikhail Belov, Alexander Brodsky, Mikhail Filippov, Sergei Kiselev, Evgeni Krupin, Boris Levyant, Andrei Miroshin, Ilya Utkin, and Evgeni Velichkin.^[3]^[19]

At a time when Soviet architecture was standardized and limited by economics and the ideological controls of the state, paper architecture offered freedom of expression and individualism.^[3] Some paper architects were Inspired by Giovanni Battista Piranesi and the Russian avant-garde.^[3] They created visionary designs that they knew were never going to be constructed.^[3]^[19] Nevertheless, they were considered escapists, deserters, and dissidents.^[3]

In 1981, these architects worked with new leadership at the Union of Architects, receiving permission to participate in international competitions for the first time.^[3] When the paper architects won fifty competitions between 1981 and 1989, their visionary architecture began to be applauded within the Soviet Union.^[3] In 1992, the Moscow Institute of Architecture hosted the exhibit “Paper Architecture. Alma Mater”.^[3] After the exhibit, the works were sold to the SBS Bank; ten years later, they were added to the collection of a Russian museum.^[3] One work by the paper architects is Avvakumov’s Tower of Perestroika, an ironic reminiscence of Tatlin’s Monument to the Third International, created for a 1990 exhibit at the Russian Museum called “Temporary Monuments”.^[19]

In the early 1990s, the Soviets fired forty percent of its architects.^[19] Many of these architects established private practices and use their creativity for actual buildings.^[19]

Lebbeus Woods

After working with the Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen in the 1960s, the American architect Lebbeus Woods turned to visionary architecture around 1976.^[2] He produced a body of drawings and models that reimagine cities like Berlin, Paris, Havana, Sarajevo, and Vienna.^[2] Until his death in 2012, he was a professor at Cooper Union and other institutions, growing a "cult" of followers.^[2] He said, "Architecture should be judged not only by the problems it solves, but by the problems it creates."^[2] He also maintained a blog for his ideas and reflections.^[5]

The Guardian noted that Woods created, "Dynamic compositions of splintered surfaces and twisted wiry forms, his fantastical scenes depicted alternative worlds, glimpses into a parallel universe writhing beneath the earth's crust."^[2] One of his visionary designs was for Albert Einstein's tomb that would "travel on a beam of light around the Earth."^[2] Only one of his designs resulted in a physical building—the Light Pavilion within Steven Holl's vast complex of towers in Chengdu, China.^[2] Completed in 2012, the Light Pavillon includes huge beams of light that are entered by walking on glass that is suspended by steel rods.^[2]

Peter Zumthor

Swiss architect Peter Zumthor is a significant figure who works in visionary architecture.^[29] In his 1998 architectural manifesto Thinking Architecture, Zumthor discussed the significance of emotion and experience in determining successful architecture. He believes that a building's beauty is not in its shape, but in the sensations and emotions, it creates.^[29] His work was mostly unpublished because of his philosophical belief that architecture should be experienced firsthand.^[29]

Related architectural forms

Visionary architecture overlaps with fantastic architecture, utopian architecture, and conceptual architecture. Fantastic architectural designs are built, whereas visionary designs are not intended to be built.^[1] Visionary architecture is more individualistic in its creation than utopian architecture.^[1] Conceptual architecture, or architecture based on imagination and visions, dissociates the physical nature of the architectural design. However, visionary architecture gains its significance in the belief that unbuilt drawings and images portray the true meaning of architecture and design.

Additional sources

Cooke, Catherine and Belov, Mikhail. Nostalgia of Culture: Contemporary Soviet Visionary Architecture. Great Britain: Architectural Association, 1988. ISBN 9781870890175
Feuerstein, Gunter. Visionäre Architektur : Wien 1958/1988. Berlin, Ernst & Sohn, 1988. ISBN 9783433020401
Lampugnani, Vittorio Magnago. Visionary Architecture of the Twentieth Century: Master drawings from Frank Lloyd Wright to Aldo Rossi. Thames & Hudson, 1982. ISBN 978-0500340912
Lemagny, Jean-Claude. Visionary Architects: Boullée, Ledoux, Lequeu. Houston, University of St Thomas, 1967. Reissued 2002. ISBN 9780940512351
Sky, Alison and Stone, Michelle. Unbuilt America: Forgotten Architecture in the United States from Thomas Jefferson to the Space Age. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976. ISBN 978-0896593411

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Walker, John. "Visionary Architecture". Glossary of Art, Architecture & Design Since 1945, 3rd. ed. G.K. Hall, 1992. ISBN 978-0816105564 Retrieved 19 January 2012. Original retried from Wayback Machine, September 26, 2022.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Wainwright, Oliver (2012-10-31). "Lebbeus Woods, visionary architect of imaginary worlds, dies in New York". the Guardian. Retrieved 2022-09-26.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Andreychenko, Julia (2017-07-28). "Building Castles in the Sky". web.archive.org. InRussia. Archived from the original on May 24, 2021. Retrieved 2022-09-26. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; July 28, 2017 suggested (help)
^ Sokolina, Anna. "Papierarchitekten und Geheimarchitektur: Planen und Bauen in der Kriese Russlands." [Paper Architects and Secret Architecture: Design and Construction in the Crisis in Russia.] Vortr. 3. In: Ökologische zukunftsweisende Siedlungen [New Sustainable Settlements. Editors R. Holmes, B. Hotze, A. v. Zadow. EAUE Berlin: Vortragsman, 1993.
^ ^a ^b ^c Woods, Lebbeus (2008-12-11). "Visionary Architecture". Lebbeus Woods. Retrieved 2022-09-26.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Keats, Jonathon (November 27, 2012). "Funnel Cities and Towns on Feet? How To Live With the Visionary Architecture of Walter Jonas and Archigram". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-09-26.
^ "Architecture of Disbelief Symposium | Cornell AAP". aap.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2022-09-26.
^ Spiller, Neil. Visionary Architecture: Blueprints of the Modern Imagination. Thames & Hudson, 2008. ISBN 9780500286555
^ Harbison, Robert. The Built, the Unbuilt, and the Unbuildable: In Pursuit of Architectural Meaning. Thames and Hudson, 1991 ISBN 9780262082044
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Burden, Ernest E. Visionary Architecture: Unbuilt Works of the Imagination. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 978-0070089945
^ Yaneva, Albena (December 2005). "Scaling Up and Down: Extraction Trials in Architectural Design". Social Studies of Science. 35 (6): 867–894. doi:10.1177/0306312705053053. ISSN 0306-3127 – via Sage Journals.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 308.
^ ^a ^b ^c Collins, George R. "The Visionary Tradition in Architecture." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 311-312
^ Vidler, Anthony (1990). Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: Architecture and Social Reform at the End of the Ancien Régime. Cambridge: The MIT Press. ISBN 9780262220323.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Philippe Duboy. Lequeu: An Architectural Enigma. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1986. ISBN 978-0262040860
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Étienne-Louis Boullée | French architect | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-09-27.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Collins, George R. "The Visionary Tradition in Architecture." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 313-316
^ ^a ^b Goldberger, Paul (1986-02-21). "Architecture: Antonio Sant'Ellia". The New York Times. pp. C24. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-09-27.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Sokolina, Anna (2001). "Alternative Identities: Conceptual Transformations in Soviet and Post-soviet Architecture". ARTMargins.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c Rosenblatt, Arthur. "The New Visionaries" The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 324.
^ ^a ^b LaMarche, Jean. "Review of The Life and Work of Douglas Darden: A Brief Encomium." Utopian Studies 9, no. 1 (1998): 169-171. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20719750.
^ ^a ^b LaMarche, Jean. "Review of The Life and Work of Douglas Darden: A Brief Encomium." Utopian Studies 9, no. 1 (1998): 162–163 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20719750.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Frearson, Amy (2022-05-04). "Peter Eisenman is the deconstructivist theorist". Dezeen. Retrieved 2022-09-27.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Zaha Hadid | Biography, Buildings, Architecture, Death, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-09-27.
^ ^a ^b Theories and Manifestoes of Contemporary Architecture (2nd Ed.); Charles Jenks and Karl Kropf, editor. Chichester: Wiley Academy, 2006, ISBN 978-0470014691
^ "Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan". Harvard Graduate School of Design. Retrieved 2022-09-27.
^ Stoppani, Teresa. Paradigm Islands, Manhattan and Venice: Discourses on Architecture and the City. New York: Routledge, 2011. ISBN 9781138874046
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Meisler, Stanley (March 2003). "Daniel Libeskind: Architect at Ground Zero". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-09-27.
^ ^a ^b ^c Saieh, Nico (2010-11-02). "Multiplicity and Memory: Talking About Architecture with Peter Zumthor". ArchDaily. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

[:6-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Walker, John. "Visionary Architecture". Glossary of Art, Architecture & Design Since 1945, 3rd. ed. G.K. Hall, 1992. ISBN 978-0816105564 Retrieved 19 January 2012. Original retried from Wayback Machine, September 26, 2022.

[:2-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Wainwright, Oliver (2012-10-31). "Lebbeus Woods, visionary architect of imaginary worlds, dies in New York". the Guardian. Retrieved 2022-09-26.

[:9-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Andreychenko, Julia (2017-07-28). "Building Castles in the Sky". web.archive.org. InRussia. Archived from the original on May 24, 2021. Retrieved 2022-09-26. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; July 28, 2017 suggested (help)

[4] Sokolina, Anna. "Papierarchitekten und Geheimarchitektur: Planen und Bauen in der Kriese Russlands." [Paper Architects and Secret Architecture: Design and Construction in the Crisis in Russia.] Vortr. 3. In: Ökologische zukunftsweisende Siedlungen [New Sustainable Settlements. Editors R. Holmes, B. Hotze, A. v. Zadow. EAUE Berlin: Vortragsman, 1993.

[:3-5] Woods, Lebbeus (2008-12-11). "Visionary Architecture". Lebbeus Woods. Retrieved 2022-09-26.

[:4-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m Keats, Jonathon (November 27, 2012). "Funnel Cities and Towns on Feet? How To Live With the Visionary Architecture of Walter Jonas and Archigram". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-09-26.

[7] "Architecture of Disbelief Symposium | Cornell AAP". aap.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2022-09-26.

[8] Spiller, Neil. Visionary Architecture: Blueprints of the Modern Imagination. Thames & Hudson, 2008. ISBN 9780500286555

[9] Harbison, Robert. The Built, the Unbuilt, and the Unbuildable: In Pursuit of Architectural Meaning. Thames and Hudson, 1991 ISBN 9780262082044

[:1-10] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Burden, Ernest E. Visionary Architecture: Unbuilt Works of the Imagination. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 978-0070089945

[:5-11] Yaneva, Albena (December 2005). "Scaling Up and Down: Extraction Trials in Architectural Design". Social Studies of Science. 35 (6): 867–894. doi:10.1177/0306312705053053. ISSN 0306-3127 – via Sage Journals.

[:0-12] The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 308.

[:7-13] Collins, George R. "The Visionary Tradition in Architecture." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 311-312

[14] Vidler, Anthony (1990). Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: Architecture and Social Reform at the End of the Ancien Régime. Cambridge: The MIT Press. ISBN 9780262220323.

[:16-15] Philippe Duboy. Lequeu: An Architectural Enigma. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1986. ISBN 978-0262040860

[:17-16] "Étienne-Louis Boullée | French architect | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

[:8-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Collins, George R. "The Visionary Tradition in Architecture." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 313-316

[:18-18] Goldberger, Paul (1986-02-21). "Architecture: Antonio Sant'Ellia". The New York Times. pp. C24. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

[:10-19] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Sokolina, Anna (2001). "Alternative Identities: Conceptual Transformations in Soviet and Post-soviet Architecture". ARTMargins.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[:13-20] Rosenblatt, Arthur. "The New Visionaries" The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin; Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 324.

[:14-21] LaMarche, Jean. "Review of The Life and Work of Douglas Darden: A Brief Encomium." Utopian Studies 9, no. 1 (1998): 169-171. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20719750.

[:15-22] LaMarche, Jean. "Review of The Life and Work of Douglas Darden: A Brief Encomium." Utopian Studies 9, no. 1 (1998): 162–163 http://www.jstor.org/stable/20719750.

[:19-23] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Frearson, Amy (2022-05-04). "Peter Eisenman is the deconstructivist theorist". Dezeen. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

[:20-24] "Zaha Hadid | Biography, Buildings, Architecture, Death, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

[:11-25] Theories and Manifestoes of Contemporary Architecture (2nd Ed.); Charles Jenks and Karl Kropf, editor. Chichester: Wiley Academy, 2006, ISBN 978-0470014691

[26] "Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan". Harvard Graduate School of Design. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

[27] Stoppani, Teresa. Paradigm Islands, Manhattan and Venice: Discourses on Architecture and the City. New York: Routledge, 2011. ISBN 9781138874046

[:21-28] Meisler, Stanley (March 2003). "Daniel Libeskind: Architect at Ground Zero". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

[:12-29] Saieh, Nico (2010-11-02). "Multiplicity and Memory: Talking About Architecture with Peter Zumthor". ArchDaily. Retrieved 2022-09-27.

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@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 Traditionally, the term visionary refers to a person who has visions or sees things that do not exist in the real world, such as a saint or someone who is mentally unbalanced.<ref name=":3" /> Thus, the term visionary architecture is somewhat pejorative and has been used to marginalize paper architects from the mainstream.<ref name=":3" /> However, an article in ''[[Forbes]]'' noted, "Whereas ordinary architecture literally shapes the way in which we live, unrealized plans and models provide infrastructure for our collective imagination. They are meeting places for conversation."<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Keats |first=Jonathon |date=November 27, 2012 |title=Funnel Cities and Towns on Feet? How To Live With the Visionary Architecture of Walter Jonas and Archigram |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jonathonkeats/2012/11/27/funnel-cities-and-towns-on-feet-how-to-live-with-the-visionary-architecture-of-walter-jonas-and-archigram/ |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>
 Visionary architecture was discussed and celebrated at the Architecture of Disbelief symposium at [[Cornell University]] in 2008.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Architecture of Disbelief Symposium {{!}} Cornell AAP |url=https://aap.cornell.edu/news-events/architecture-disbelief-symposium |access-date=2022-09-26 |website=aap.cornell.edu |language=en}}</ref> Prominent modern and pre-modern visionary architects include [[Étienne-Louis Boullée|Etienne-Louis Boullée]], [[Peter Eisenman]], [[Zaha Hadid]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Daniel Libeskind]], [[Antonio Sant'Elia]], and [[Lebbeus Woods]].<ref>Spiller, Neil. ''Visionary Architecture: Blueprints of the Modern Imagination''. Thames & Hudson, 2008. {{ISBN|9780500286555}}</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" />
+[[File:Ганс_Вредеман_де_Вріс_Ротонда.jpg|thumb|Rotunda Project by [[Hans Vredeman de Vries]]]]
+[[File:Piranesi01.jpg|thumb|''The Smoking Fire'' from ''The Imaginary Prisons'' by [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]], 1761 edition ]]
+[[File:Chaux - Maison de surveillants de la source de la Loue.jpg|thumb|House for the Waterworks Director of Chaux, by [[Claude Nicolas Ledoux]]]]
+[[File:Stazione Sant'Elia cropped2.jpg|thumb|Stazione by [[Antonio Sant'Elia]]]]
 ==History and early works==
@@ Line 13: / Line 17: @@
 Most architects imagine, see, and define buildings by fabricating models that can be scaled up and down, turning abstract architectural sketches into solid three-dimensional buildings.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Yaneva |first=Albena |date=December 2005 |title=Scaling Up and Down: Extraction Trials in Architectural Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0306312705053053 |journal=Social Studies of Science |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=867–894 |doi=10.1177/0306312705053053 |issn=0306-3127 |via=Sage Journals}}</ref> When turned into scaled models, visionary designs were considered utopian and fantastic.<ref name=":0">''[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/the_metropolitan_museum_of_art_bulletin_v_26_no_8_april_1968 The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin];''  Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 308.</ref> Rather than bringing the building into existence, visionary architects use scale models to make the building speak through a sense of fantasy and symbolic meanings.<ref name=":0" />
-Some visionary architects skipped the model process entirely, believing that drawing is "the highest form and clearest expression of architecture."<ref name=":2" />[[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]] was one of the greatest printmakers of the 18th century.<ref name=":1" /> The prints Piransi made of his architectural drawings show his mastery of imagined spaces.<ref name=":1" /> These drawings fit the definition of visionary architecture because Piranesi's drawings included unique and intricate details that were only achievable in drawings and would be lost in translation to physical structures.<ref name=":1" /> As an example, his The ''Prisons'' ([[Imaginary Prisons|Carceri d'invenzione]]) or ''Imaginary Prisons'' depicts labyrinthine monumental spaces and mysterious machines.<ref name=":1" />
+Some visionary architects skipped the model process entirely, believing that drawing is "the highest form and clearest expression of architecture."<ref name=":2" />[[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]] was one of the greatest printmakers of the 18th century.<ref name=":1" /> The prints Piransi made of his architectural drawings show his mastery of imagined spaces.<ref name=":1" /> These drawings fit the definition of visionary architecture because Piranesi's drawings included unique and intricate details that were only achievable in drawings and would be lost in translation to physical structures.<ref name=":1" /> As an example, his The ''Prisons'' ([[Imaginary Prisons|Carceri d'invenzione]]) or ''Imaginary Prisons'' from 1745 depicts labyrinthine monumental spaces and mysterious machines.<ref name=":1" />
 Most visionary architecture of the 18th century centered around projects of immense size that "defied both man's comprehension and his building techniques."<ref name=":7">Collins, George R. "The Visionary Tradition in Architecture." ''[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/the_metropolitan_museum_of_art_bulletin_v_26_no_8_april_1968 The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin];'' Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 311-312</ref> [[Claude Nicolas Ledoux]] is known for his utopian designs, including a visionary design for the City of Chaux around the [[Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans]].<ref>Vidler, Anthony (1990). ''Claude-Nicolas Ledoux: Architecture and Social Reform at the End of the Ancien Régime''. Cambridge: The MIT Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/9780262220323|9780262220323]].</ref> Ledoux developed an entire master plan for Chaux, along with architectural drawings, elevations, and sections of various individual buildings. Ledoux also designed a tube-shaped house for the director of the waterworks at the source of [[Loire|Loiie]] river, {{Circa|1773 to 1779}}.<ref name=":7" />
@@ Line 19: / Line 23: @@
 [[Jean-Jacques Lequeu]] is one of the more eccentric and shocking of the early visionary architects.<ref name=":16" /> After the [[French Revolution]] ended his chance to become an architect, he worked as a civil servant, cartographer, surveyor, and draftsman.<ref name=":16" /> However, he spent most of his time preparing an unpublished treatise, ''Architecture Civile'', which features ornaments and fragments of architectural drawings and a series of his fanciful architectural designs.<ref name=":16" /> These designs typically show an elevation or section of a building, but rarely an entire design.<ref name=":16">Philippe Duboy. ''Lequeu: An Architectural Enigma''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1986. {{ISBN|978-0262040860}}</ref> One of his visionary designs was a stable shaped like a cow.<ref name=":7" />
-[[Étienne-Louis Boullée]] was an 18th century visionary neo-classical architect.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |title=Étienne-Louis Boullée {{!}} French architect {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Etienne-Louis-Boullee |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> He was an influential architectural theorist because he taught at the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées]] and elsewhere for fifty years.<ref name=":17" /> Later in his career, Boullée designs showed an abstraction of geometric forms, removing all unnecessary ornamentation and inflating geometric forms to a huge scale.<ref name=":17" /> In his ''La Théorie Des Corps,'' he discussed the properties of geometric forms such as the cube, cylinder, pyramid, and sphere and their effect on the senses.<ref name=":17" /> He believe the sphere was the "ideal form".<ref name=":17" />
+[[Étienne-Louis Boullée]] was an 18th century visionary neo-classical architect.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |title=Étienne-Louis Boullée {{!}} French architect {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Etienne-Louis-Boullee |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> He was an influential architectural theorist because he taught at the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées]] and elsewhere for fifty years.<ref name=":17" /> Later in his career, Boullée designs showed an abstraction of geometric forms, removing all unnecessary ornamentation and inflating geometric forms to a huge scale.<ref name=":17" /> In his ''La Théorie Des Corps,'' he discussed the properties of geometric forms such as the cube, cylinder, pyramid, and sphere and their effect [[File:Lequeu_Tor_eines_Jagdgelaendes_Projekt.jpg|thumb|[[Jean-Jacques Lequeu|Jean-Jacuqes Lequeu]]'s design for the gate of a hunting club ]]on the senses.<ref name=":17" /> He believe the sphere was the "ideal form".<ref name=":17" />
 The early motion picture industry had an impact on architecture, especially the films [[Metropolis (1927 film)|''Metropolis'']] and ''[[Just Imagine]]'' which showed elaborate, imaginative, and [[futuristic]] architectural sets.<ref name=":1" /> [[Hugh Ferriss]] is one visionary architect who was influenced by Hollywood.<ref name=":1" />
 In the 20th century, visionary architects surfaced in repressed societies where young architects had little hope of seeing their designs realized.<ref name=":6" /> Visionary architecture of this era is divided into three main movements: [[Expressionist architecture|German expressionism]], [[Futurist architecture|Italian futurism]], and [[Russian Constructivism|Russian constructivism]].<ref name=":8">Collins, George R. "The Visionary Tradition in Architecture." ''[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/the_metropolitan_museum_of_art_bulletin_v_26_no_8_april_1968 The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin];'' Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 313-316</ref> The Germans turned to visionary paper architecture after [[World War I]].<ref name=":8" /> One example is the [[Bruno Taut]] design for the Cosmic Carousel in 1920, a spherical structure that had radar-like propellers.<ref name=":8" /> [[Antonio Sant'Elia]] was a key influencer of the futurism movement in Italy, although most of his work was on paper and was not built.<ref name=":18">{{Cite news |last=Goldberger |first=Paul |date=1986-02-21 |title=Architecture: Antonio Sant'Ellia |language=en-US |pages=C24 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/21/arts/architecture-antonio-sant-elia.html |access-date=2022-09-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He designed mountainous buildings with bridges and towers connecting spaces.<ref name=":18" />
+[[File:Vesnin_third_congress.jpg|thumb|[[Vesnin brothers|Vesnin brother]]<nowiki/>s design for the Third Congress memorial]]
-Russian constructivism also emerged after World War I, and leaned toward "openwork, pavilion-like structures with strident placards and public-address systems."<ref name=":8" /> Russian constructivist designs relate to visionary architectural designs from the 18th century in "the overt symbolism of their various elements" and a tendency toward immense buildings.<ref name=":8" /> One outstanding example of this style is the [[Vesnin brothers]]' design for the [[Palace of the Soviets]], with its immense size and mechanization through projections at each levels.<ref name=":8" /> Another example, also by the Vesnin brothers, was the proposed building for ''[[Pravda]]'' which they covered in signboards and news communication instruments.<ref name=":8" /> In addition, [[Vladimir Tatlin]] designed a monument for the [[Communist International]], a {{Convert|1300|ft|m}} tall rotating spiral that wraps around [[Vera Mukhina]]’s ''Monument to Worker and Farmer''.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10">{{cite journal |last=Sokolina |first=Anna (2001) |title=Alternative Identities: Conceptual Transformations in Soviet and Post-soviet Architecture. |url=https://artmargins.com/alternative-identities-conceptual-transformations-in-soviet-and-post-soviet-architecture |journal=ARTMargins}}</ref>  Tatlin was literally recalling the metaphor for the [[Russian Revolution]] as a spiral.<ref name=":8" />
+Russian constructivism also emerged after World War I, and leaned toward "openwork, pavilion-like structures with strident placards and public-address systems."<ref name=":8" /> Russian constructivist designs relate to visionary architectural designs from the 18th century in "the overt symbolism of their various elements" and a tendency toward immense buildings.<ref name=":8" /> One outstanding example of this style is the [[Vesnin brothers]]' design for the [[Palace of the Soviets]], with its immense size and mechanization through projections at each levels.<ref name=":8" /> Another example, also by the Vesnin brothers, was the proposed building for ''[[Pravda]]'' which they covered in signboards and news communication instruments.<ref name=":8" /> In addition, [[Vladimir Tatlin]] designed a monument for theThird Congress or [[Communist International]], a {{Convert|1300|ft|m}} tall rotating spiral that wraps around [[Vera Mukhina]]’s ''Monument to Worker and Farmer''.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10">{{cite journal |last=Sokolina |first=Anna (2001) |title=Alternative Identities: Conceptual Transformations in Soviet and Post-soviet Architecture. |url=https://artmargins.com/alternative-identities-conceptual-transformations-in-soviet-and-post-soviet-architecture |journal=ARTMargins}}</ref>  Tatlin was literally recalling the metaphor for the [[Russian Revolution]] as a spiral.<ref name=":8" />
 In 1960, [[Arthur Drexler]] curated an exhibit at the [[Museum of Modern Art]] in New York City that showcased the designs of visionary architects.<ref name=":6" /> Drexler not gave a name to visionary architecture, but he also called attention to the importance of this work.<ref name=":6" /> He organized the exhibit based on three themes: geometry, mountains and caves, and roads or bridges.<ref name=":6" /> He included work by the architects [[Le Corbusier]], [[Louis Kahn]], [[William Katavolos]], [[Frederick John Kiesler]], [[Hans Poelzig]], [[Paolo Soleri]], and [[Michael Webb (architect)|Michael Webb]].<ref name=":6" />
-The Metropolitan Museum of Art hosted the exhibit  "Visionary Architects" in 1968.<ref name=":0" /> Curated by [[Jean Adhémar|Jean Adhemar]] and [[J. C. Lemagny]] of the [[Bibliothèque Nationale de France]] in Paris, this exhibit included the147 architectural drawings of late 18th-century French architects who "rebelled against the traditional ideas of their contemporaries."<ref name=":0" />
+[[Metropolitan Museum of Art|The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] hosted the exhibit  "Visionary Architects" in 1968.<ref name=":0" /> Curated by [[Jean Adhémar|Jean Adhemar]] and [[J. C. Lemagny]] of the [[Bibliothèque Nationale de France]] in Paris, this exhibit included 147 architectural drawings of late 18th-century French architects who "rebelled against the traditional ideas of their contemporaries."<ref name=":0" />
 == Post-World War II ==
 Visionary architecture expanded after [[World War II]].<ref name=":6" /> During this time, visionary architects tended to create designs that either anticipated the future or exaggerated and distorted existing structures.<ref name=":6" />
+[[File:Trøndelag_Teater_project_plate_17.jpg|thumb|Trøndelag Theatre design contest entry by [[Ron Herron]], Lars Fasting, and Per Kartvedt, ]]
 === The Archigram Group ===
@@ Line 38: / Line 43: @@
 The [[Archigram]] Group was a British art collective that explored [[avant-garde]] and visionary architecture from 1961 to 1974.<ref name=":4" /> Its members were [[Warren Chalk]], [[Peter Cook (architect)|Peter Cook]], [[Dennis Crompton]], [[David Greene (architect)|David Greene]], [[Ron Herron]], and [[Michael Webber|Michael Webb]].<ref name=":13">Rosenblatt, Arthur. "The New Visionaries" ''[https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/the_metropolitan_museum_of_art_bulletin_v_26_no_8_april_1968 The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin];'' Vol. 26, No. 8, April 1968, page 324.</ref> Their work focused on the future of urban development without the restraint of a client.<ref name=":13" /> Many of their designs were inspired by a visit to [[Cape Kennedy]].<ref name=":13" /> One of Archigram's most outlandish designs was Cook's Plug-In City from 1964.<ref name=":4" /> Cook envisioned moveable living units or pods that were easily relocated by communal cranes.<ref name=":4" /> The pod's owner could move around the city and plug into the infrastructure at will.<ref name=":4" /> Herron came up with the Walking City, a city that did not have a fixed location because it could easily relocate by moving on its legs.<ref name=":4" /> Archigram's work was almost exclusively visionary; its only designs that were constructed were a swimming pool for [[Rod Stewart]] and a playground in [[Buckinghamshire]].<ref name=":4" />
+[[File:Oxygen_House_1988.jpg|thumb|Oxygen House by [[Douglas Darden]],  1988]]
+[[File:2013._Cidade_da_Cultura._Santiago_de_Compostela_-_Galiza.jpg|thumb|Library of Galicia in the City of the Culture, Santiago de Compostela by [[Peter Eisenman]]]]
+[[File:Le_pavillon_de_lAutriche_(Venise)_(4982875241).jpg|thumb|[[Zaha Hadid]]'s designs for The Austrian Pavilion ]]
 === Douglas Darden ===
 {{Main|Douglas Darden}}
@@ Line 46: / Line 53: @@
 === Peter Eisenman ===
 {{Main|Peter Eisenman}}
 [[Peter Eisenman]] is a deconstructivist theorist who believes that architecture should be disharmonious or even nonfunctional because this would "make people think rather than feel".<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Frearson |first=Amy |date=2022-05-04 |title=Peter Eisenman is the deconstructivist theorist |url=https://www.dezeen.com/2022/05/04/peter-eisenman-deconstructivist-architect/ |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=Dezeen |language=en}}</ref> He called his work "cardboard architecture" and once said, "I would never live in anything I design."<ref name=":19" /> He designed a series of experimental houses, several which were built, that showed the reality of his statement.<ref name=":19" /> For example, House IV had a glass strip that prevented a double bed in the main bedroom and a column that abutted the dining table.<ref name=":19" /> His most ambitious design was the City of Culture in [[Santiago de Compostela]], a huge cultural complex that echoes the forms of the nearby mountains, appearing to roll up from the landscape.<ref name=":19" /> Another project that incorporates his visionary, deconstructivist style is the ''[[Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe]]'' in Berlin, Germany.<ref name=":19" />
 === Hermann Finsterlin ===
 {{Main|Hermann Finsterlin}}
 [[Hermann Finsterlin]] is considered to be one of the most radical of the German [[expressionist architects]], known for producing carbuncular studies of unbuildable and obscure buildings.<ref name=":1" /> His visionary drawings focused on perspectives, playing with unusual, organic shapes.<ref name=":1" /> Finsterlin's architectural drawings are among the purest paper buildings ever developed and would require the most ingenious engineering to construct because his designs go against their form.<ref name=":1" />
 === Zaha Hadid ===
 {{Main|Zaha Hadid}}
 Zaha Hadid was a [[British Iraqis|British-Iraqi]] architect known for deconstructivist designs with fantastic shapes.<ref name=":20">{{Cite web |title=Zaha Hadid {{!}} Biography, Buildings, Architecture, Death, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zaha-Hadid |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Her geometric designs have a sense of movement, fragmentation, and instability.<ref name=":20" /> However, most of her designs in the 1980s and 1990s were not constructed.<ref name=":20" /> One of her significant buildings is the Lois & Richard Rosenthal Center for Contemporary Art in Cincinnati, Ohio, essentially "a vertical series of cubes and voids".<ref name=":20" /> She also designed the [[MAXXI]] museum of contemporary art and architecture in Rome.<ref name=":20" />
 === Walter Jonas ===
-[[Walter Jonas]] is a Swiss-German painter who designed Intrapolis for West Germany in the 1970s.<ref name=":4" /> Intrapolis consisted of housing units shaped like funnels and made of stacked concentric circles.<ref name=":4" /> Jonas said that his funnel-shaped buildings minimized ground contact and "save valuable soil".<ref name=":4" />  Intrapolis was never constructed because West Germany lacked the funds.<ref name=":4" /> One writer notes, "Jonas's funnels question the assumption that urban residences ought to be refuges from the cities in which we live, and encourage us to consider more holistic options. The Intrapolis captivates us precisely because it's so bizarrely different from anything in our experience. It belongs to an alternate reality that we can visit to escape the built-in assumptions of our everyday environment."<ref name=":4" />
+[[Walter Jonas]] is a Swiss-German painter who designed Intrapolis for West Germany in the 1970s.<ref name=":4" /> Intrapolis consisted of housing units shaped like funnels and made of stacked concentric circles.<ref name=":4" /> Jonas said that his funnel-shaped buildings minimized ground contact and "save valuable soil".<ref name=":4" />  Intrapolis was never constructed because West Germany lacked the funds.<ref name=":4" /> One writer notes, "Jonas's funnels question the assumption that urban residences ought to be refuges from the cities in which we live, and encourage us to consider more holistic options. The Intrapolis captivates us precisely because it's so bizarrely different from anything in our experience. It belongs to an alternate reality that we can visit to escape the built-in assumptions of our everyday environment."<ref name=":4" />[[File:Rem_Koolhaas_Peking.JPG|thumb|Design for the Chinese State TV Building in Beijing by [[Rem Koolhaas]]]]
 === Rem Koolhaas ===
 {{Main|Rem Koolhaas}}
-[[Rem Koolhaas]] moved to Manhattan, New York in 1972 where he developed a fascination with the city.<ref name=":11" /> He began to examine the dynamics that constructed the city, resulting in his manifesto, ''[[Delirious New York|Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan]],''  that outlines his theory of Manhattanism.<ref name=":11">[[Theories and Manifestoes of Contemporary Architecture|''Theories and Manifestoes of Contemporary Architecture'']] (2nd Ed.); Charles Jenks and Karl Kropf, editor. Chichester: Wiley Academy, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0470014691}}</ref> Koolhaas saw a symbiotic relationship between Manhattan's "culture of congestion" and its architecture, arguing that the architecture generated the culture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan |url=https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/publication/delirious-new-york-a-retroactive-manifesto-for-manhattan-1/ |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=Harvard Graduate School of Design |language=en-US}}</ref> His book is also a spatial project, using the narrative sequence and typographic layout to mimic the space effectively.<ref>Stoppani, Teresa. ''Paradigm Islands, Manhattan and Venice: Discourses on Architecture and the City''. New York: Routledge, 2011. {{ISBN|9781138874046}}</ref>
+[[Rem Koolhaas]] moved to Manhattan, New York in 1972 where he developed a fascination with the city.<ref name=":11" /> He began to examine the dynamics that constructed the city, resulting in his manifesto, ''[[Delirious New York|Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan]],''  that outlines his theory of Manhattanism.<ref name=":11">[[Theories and Manifestoes of Contemporary Architecture|''Theories and Manifestoes of Contemporary Architecture'']] (2nd Ed.); Charles Jenks and Karl Kropf, editor. Chichester: Wiley Academy, 2006, {{ISBN|978-0470014691}}</ref> Koolhaas saw a symbiotic relationship between Manhattan's "culture of congestion" and its architecture, arguing that the architecture generated the culture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan |url=https://www.gsd.harvard.edu/publication/delirious-new-york-a-retroactive-manifesto-for-manhattan-1/ |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=Harvard Graduate School of Design |language=en-US}}</ref> His book is also a spatial project, using the narrative sequence and typographic layout to mimic the space effectively.<ref>Stoppani, Teresa. ''Paradigm Islands, Manhattan and Venice: Discourses on Architecture and the City''. New York: Routledge, 2011. {{ISBN|9781138874046}}</ref>[[File:Model_of_Jüdisches_Museum_Berlin_(Jewish_Museum_Berlin).jpg|thumb|Model of the Jewish Museum Berlin by [[Daniel Libeskind]] ]]
 === Daniel Libeskind ===
@@ Line 72: / Line 83: @@
 At a time when [[Soviet architecture (disambiguation)|Soviet architecture]] was standardized and limited by economics and the ideological controls of the state, paper architecture offered freedom of expression and individualism.<ref name=":9" /> Some paper architects were Inspired by [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]] and the [[Russian avant-garde]].<ref name=":9" /> They created visionary designs that they knew were never going to be constructed.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /> Nevertheless, they were considered escapists, deserters, and dissidents.<ref name=":9" />
-In 1981, these architects worked with new leadership at the Union of Architects, receiving permission to participate in international competitions for the first time.<ref name=":9" /> When the paper architects won fifty competitions between 1981 and 1989, their visionary architecture began to be applauded within the Soviet Union.<ref name=":9" />  In 1992, the Moscow Institute of Architecture hosted the exhibit “Paper Architecture. Alma Mater”.<ref name=":9" /> After the exhibit, the works were sold to the SBS Bank; ten years later, they were added to the collection of a Russian museum.<ref name=":9" /> One work by the paper architects is Avvakumov’s Tower of Perestroika, an ironic reminiscence of Tatlin’s Monument to the Third International, created for a 1990 exhibit at the [[Russian Museum]] called “Temporary Monuments”.<ref name=":10" />
+In 1981, these architects worked with new leadership at the Union of Architects, receiving permission to participate in international competitions for the first time.<ref name=":9" /> When the paper architects won fifty competitions between 1981 and 1989, their visionary architecture began to be applauded within the Soviet Union.<ref name=":9" />  In 1992, the Moscow Institute of Architecture hosted the exhibit “Paper Architecture. Alma Mater”.<ref name=":9" /> After the exhibit, the works were sold to the [[SBS Bank]]; ten years later, they were added to the collection of a Russian museum.<ref name=":9" /> One work by the paper architects is Avvakumov’s Tower of Perestroika, an ironic reminiscence of Tatlin’s Monument to the Third International, created for a 1990 exhibit at the [[Russian Museum]] called “Temporary Monuments”.<ref name=":10" />
-In the early 1990s, the Soviets fired forty percent of its architects.<ref name=":10" /> Many were able to establish a private practice and use their creativity for actual buildings.<ref name=":10" />
+In the early 1990s, the Soviets fired forty percent of its architects.<ref name=":10" /> Many of these architects established private practices and use their creativity for actual buildings.<ref name=":10" />
+[[File:Starhouse_One_(8056199837).jpg|thumb|Starhouse One by [[Lebbeus Woods]], 1996]]
+[[File:Saint_Benedict_Chapel_3.jpg|thumb|Saint Benedict Chapel in Norway by Peter Zumthor]]
 === Lebbeus Woods ===
@@ Line 86: / Line 99: @@
 Swiss architect [[Peter Zumthor]] is a significant figure who works in visionary architecture.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Saieh |first=Nico |date=2010-11-02 |title=Multiplicity and Memory: Talking About Architecture with Peter Zumthor |url=https://www.archdaily.com/85656/multiplicity-and-memory-talking-about-architecture-with-peter-zumthor |access-date=2022-09-27 |website=ArchDaily |language=en-US}}</ref> In his 1998 architectural manifesto ''Thinking Architecture,''  Zumthor discussed the significance of emotion and experience in determining successful architecture. He believes that a building's beauty is not in its shape, but in the sensations and emotions, it creates.<ref name=":12" /> His work was mostly unpublished because of his philosophical belief that architecture should be experienced firsthand.<ref name=":12" />
 == Related architectural forms ==
-Visionary architecture overlaps with [[fantastic architecture]], [[utopian architecture]], and [[conceptual architecture]]. Fantastic architectural designs are built, whereas visionary designs are not built.<ref name=":6" /> Visionary architecture is more individualistic in its creation than utopian architecture.<ref name=":6" /> [[Conceptual architecture]], or architecture based on imagination and visions, dissociates the physical nature of the architectural design. However, visionary architecture gains its significance in the belief that unbuilt drawings and images portray the true meaning of architecture and design.
+Visionary architecture overlaps with [[fantastic architecture]], [[utopian architecture]], and [[conceptual architecture]]. Fantastic architectural designs are built, whereas visionary designs are not intended to be built.<ref name=":6" /> Visionary architecture is more individualistic in its creation than utopian architecture.<ref name=":6" /> [[Conceptual architecture]], or architecture based on imagination and visions, dissociates the physical nature of the architectural design. However, visionary architecture gains its significance in the belief that unbuilt drawings and images portray the true meaning of architecture and design.
 == See also ==
@@ Line 96: / Line 109: @@
 == Additional sources ==
 * Cooke, Catherine and Belov, Mikhail. ''Nostalgia of Culture: Contemporary Soviet Visionary Architecture''. Great Britain: Architectural Association, 1988. {{ISBN|9781870890175}}
 * Feuerstein, Gunter. ''Visionäre Architektur : Wien 1958/1988''. Berlin, Ernst & Sohn, 1988. {{ISBN|9783433020401}}