Oceanography: Difference between revisions
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'''Oceanography''' (from [[Ocean]] + [[Greek language|Greek]] ''γράφειν'' = write), also called '''oceanology''' or '''marine science''', is the branch of [[Earth Sciences]] that studies the [[Earth]]'s [[ocean]]s and [[sea]]s. Oceanographers study a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and [[ecosystem]] dynamics; [[ocean currents]], [[waves]], and geophysical fluid dynamics; [[plate tectonics]] and the geology of the sea floor; and [[flux|fluxes]] of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: [[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[geology]], [[meteorology]], and [[physics]]. |
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== Branches == |
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The study of oceanography may be divided into a number of branches: |
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* '''[[Marine biology]]''' or '''biological oceanography''', the study of the plants, animals and microbes ([[biota (ecology)|biota]]) of the oceans and their [[ecology|ecological]] interaction; |
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* '''[[Chemical oceanography]]''' or '''marine chemistry''', the study of the [[chemistry]] of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the atmosphere; |
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* '''[[Marine geology]]''' or '''geological oceanography''', the study of the [[geology]] of the ocean floor including [[plate tectonics]]; |
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* '''[[Physical oceanography]]''' studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, [[ocean surface wave|waves]], [[tide]]s and [[ocean current|currents]]; |
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* '''[[Marine engineering]]''' involves the design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbors, and other structures that allow us to use the ocean wisely. |
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These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the [[exact sciences]] or [[mathematics]] and then focus on applying their [[interdisciplinary]] knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography.<ref>[http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=8E5BF2D2-2B35-221B-6CC622E027B244CC Impact from the Deep]; October 2006; [[Scientific American]] Magazine; by Peter D. Ward; 8 Page(s)</ref> |
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== History == |
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[[Image:Ocean currents 1911.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Ocean currents (1911)]] |
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Early exploration of the oceans was limited to its surfaces and the few creatures that fishermen brought up in nets, but when [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville|Bougainville]] and [[James Cook|Cook]] carried out their explorations in the [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]], the seas themselves formed part of the reports. |
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[[James Rennell]] wrote the first scientific textbooks about currents in the [[Atlantic ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Indian ocean|Indian]] oceans during the late 18th and at the beginning of 19th century. Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in [[1840]], and [[Charles Darwin]] published a paper on [[reef]]s and the formation of [[atoll]]s. |
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The steep slope beyond the [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] was not discovered until 1849. [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]]'s ''Physical Geography of the Sea'', [[1855]] was the first textbook of oceanography. The first successful laying of [[Transatlantic telegraph cable]] in August 1858 confirmed the presence of an underwater "telegraphic plateau" [[mid-ocean ridge]]. |
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After the middle of the 19th century, scientific societies were processing a flood of new terrestrial botanical and zoological information. European natural historians began to sense the lack of more than anecdotal knowledge of the oceans. |
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Oceanography began as a quantifiable [[science]] in [[1872]], when the [[Scotland|Scots]] [[Charles Wyville Thompson]] and [[John Murray (oceanographer)|Sir John Murray]] launched the [[Challenger expedition]] (1872–1876). Other [[Europe]]an and [[Americas|American]] nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by [[John Murray (oceanographer)|Sir John Murray]] and [[Johan Hjort]] was at that time the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever, and led to the classic 1912 book ''The Depths of the Ocean''. |
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Oceanographic institutes dedicated to the study of oceanography were founded. In the [[United States]], these included the [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]], [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]], [[Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]] at [[Columbia University]], and the [[University of Washington#Organization|School of Oceanography]] at [[University of Washington]]. In [[Britain]], there is a major research institution: [[National Oceanography Centre, Southampton]]. In [[Australia]], [[CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research]], known as CMAR, is a leading center. |
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The first international organization of oceanography was created in [[1902]] as the [[International Council for the Exploration of the Sea]]. |
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In [[1921]] [[Monaco]] formed the [[International Hydrographic Bureau]] (IHB). Then in [[1966]], the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] created a ''National Council for Marine Resources and Engineering Development''. [[NOAA]] was in charge of exploring and studying all aspects of Oceanography. It also enabled the [[National Science Foundation]] to award [http://www.factbites.com/topics/Sea-Grant-Colleges '''Sea Grant College'''] funding to multi-disciplinary researchers in the field of oceanography. |
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== Ocean and atmosphere connections == |
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The study of the oceans is intimately linked to understanding [[global warming]] and related [[Biosphere#Origin_and_use_of_the_term|biosphere]] concerns. |
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{{Cquote2|Our planet is invested with two great oceans; one visible, the other invisible; one underfoot, the other overhead; one entirely envelopes it, the other covers about two thirds of its surface.|[[Matthew F. Maury]] (1855) ''The [[Physical Geography]] of the Seas and Its [[Meteorology]]''}} |
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== Notable oceanographers == |
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* [[Robert Ballard]] |
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* [[W. W. Behrens, Jr.]] |
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* [[Henry Bryant Bigelow]] |
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* [[Richard E. Byrd]] |
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* [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau|Jacques Cousteau]] |
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* [[Robert S. Dietz]] |
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* [[V. Walfrid Ekman]] |
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* [[Gotthilf Hempel]] |
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* [[Johan Hjort]] |
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* [[Charles David Keeling]] |
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* [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]] |
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* [[Ramón Margalef]] |
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* [[Albert I, Prince of Monaco]] |
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* [[Walter Munk]] |
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* [[John Murray (oceanographer)|John Murray]] |
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* [[Stefan Rahmstorf]] |
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* [[Yuly Shokalsky]] |
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* [[Henry Stommel]] |
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* [[Harald Sverdrup]] |
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* [[Mary Sears]] |
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* [[Charles Wilkes]] |
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* [[Hamed Gohar]] |
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== Major oceanographic institutions and programs== |
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===International=== |
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* [http://www.scor-int.org/about.htm Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research ([[Non-governmental organization|NGO]])] |
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* [http://ioc.unesco.org/goos/ Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS)] |
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* [[American Geophysical Union]] |
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* [http://www.tos.org/ The Oceanography Society] |
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===Brazil=== |
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* [http://www.io.usp.br São Paulo University Institute of Oceanography] |
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===Canada=== |
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* [[Bedford Institute of Oceanography]] |
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* [http://www.osl.gc.ca St. Lawrence Observatory (OSL)] |
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===Finland=== |
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* [http://www.fimr.fi/en.html The Finnish Institute of Marine Research] |
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===France=== |
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* [[IFREMER]] - French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea |
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* [[Station biologique de Roscoff]] |
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===Germany=== |
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* [[Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research]], Bremerhaven |
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* IfM-GEOMAR, Kiel |
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* MARUM/RCOM, Bremen |
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===India=== |
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* [[National Institute of Oceanography, India|National Institute of Oceanography, Goa]] |
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===U.K.=== |
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* [[Southampton Oceanography Centre]] |
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* [[Plymouth Marine Laboratory]] |
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===USA=== |
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* [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] |
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* [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] |
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* [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] |
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* [[Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute]] |
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==References== |
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<references/> |
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== See also == |
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* [[Anoxic event]] - [[Anoxic sea water]] |
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* [[Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center]] |
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* [[Freak wave]] |
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* [[List of Oceanic basins]] |
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* [[Oceans Act of 2000]] |
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* [[Ocean colonization]] |
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* [[Oceanographic Museum]] - Monaco |
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* [[Sea level]] |
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* [[Sea level rise]] |
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=== Related disciplines === |
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* [[Biogeochemistry]] |
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* [[Biogeography]] |
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* [[Hydrography]] |
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* [[Hydrology]] |
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* [[Limnology]] |
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* [[Meteorology]] |
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== External links == |
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* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator] - Plot and download ocean data |
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* [http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/lesson_plans/contrast/cover.html Exploring Marine Ecosystems] - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History permanent exhibit |
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* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/10 Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme] - Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU |
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* [http://www.lodyc.jussieu.fr/NEMO NEMO: Modeling framework for Oceanography] |
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* [http://marine.artuz.com/ Oceanographycal and Hidrobiological manuscripts] The Turkish Seas |
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* [http://marinebio.org/Oceans/Conservation/Moyle/ch8.asp Ocean Alliance: Conservation Biology] |
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* [http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom Matthias Tomczak's oceanography teaching site] (Open source studying material) |
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* [http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/home/oceanography_book.htm Ocean World] (Open source textbook) |
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* [http://www.SeaDiscovery.com SeaDiscovery] - Marine Technology Reporter (technology science and engineering) |
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* [http://www.oceanographers.net Oceanographers Net], Online portal for the Oceanographic community |
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* [http://www.pewoceanscience.org/mission/mission.php Pew Institute fo Ocean Science] - Protecting the world's oceans and the species that inhabit them. |
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* Herdman, William A. - [http://repositories.cdlib.org/sio/lib/4/ Founders of Oceanography, and their work] - An introduction to the science of the sea |
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* [http://www.ocean.us/ The National Office for Integrated and Sustained Ocean Observation] |
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* [http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/timeline_Oceanography.html Timeline of Oceanography] |
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* [http://www.wmo.int/web/arep/tmrp/tmrp_homepage.shtml WMO:] Tropical Meteorology Research Programme |
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* [http://oceanmotion.org/ Ocean Motion and Surface Currents ([[NASA]])] |
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* [http://www.bodc.ac.uk/ British Oceanographic Data Centre - a source of oceanographic data and information] |
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== Further reading == |
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Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences.'' San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X |
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{{Earth science}} |
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{{Environmental science}} |
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{{Physical geography topics}} |
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[[Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics]] |
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[[Category:Hydrology]] |
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[[Category:Oceanography|*]] |
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Revision as of 20:53, 27 February 2007
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