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'''Lahnda''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɑː|n|d|ə}};<ref>{{OED|Lahnda}}</ref> {{nq|لہندا}}), also known as '''Lahndi''' or '''Western Punjabi''', is a group of north-western [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language varieties spoken in parts of Pakistan and India. It is defined in the [[ISO 639]] standard as a "[[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]]"<ref name=e26/> or as a "series of dialects" by other authors.{{sfn|Masica|1991|pp=17–18}}{{efn|For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see {{harvtxt|Shackle|1979}} for Punjabi and {{harvtxt|Masica|1991|pp=23–27}} for [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] generally.}} Its validity as a [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic grouping]] is not certain.{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=18}} Terms like ''Lahnda'' or ''Western Punjabi'' are [[exonyms]] employed by linguists, and are not used by the speakers themselves.{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=17–18}}
'''Lahnda''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɑː|n|d|ə}};<ref>{{OED|Lahnda}}</ref> {{nq|لہندا}}), also known as '''Lahndi''' or '''Western Punjabi''', is a group of north-western [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language varieties spoken in parts of Pakistan and India. It is defined in the [[ISO 639]] standard as a "[[ISO 639 macrolanguage|macrolanguage]]"<ref name=e26/> or as a "series of dialects" by other authors.{{sfn|Masica|1991|pp=17–18}}{{efn|For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see {{harvtxt|Shackle|1979}} for Punjabi and {{harvtxt|Masica|1991|pp=23–27}} for [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] generally.}} Its validity as a [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|genetic grouping]] is not certain.{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=18}} The terms "Lahnda" and "Western Punjabi" are [[exonyms]] employed by linguists, and are not used by the speakers themselves.{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=17–18}}


Lahnda includes the following languages: [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] (spoken mostly in southern [[Pakistani Punjab]] by about 26 million people), the diverse varieties of [[Hindko language|Hindko]] (with almost five million speakers in north-western Punjab and neighbouring regions of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], especially [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara]]), [[Pahari-Pothwari|Pahari/Pothwari]] (3.5 million speakers in north-central Punjab, [[Azad Kashmir]] and parts of Indian [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]), [[Khetrani language|Khetrani]] (20,000 speakers in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]]), and [[Inku language|Inku]] (a possibly extinct language of Afghanistan).{{cn}} ''[[Ethnologue]]'' also subsumes under Lahnda a group of varieties that it labels as "Western Punjabi" ([[ISO 639-3]] code: ''pnb'') – the [[Majhi dialect]]s transitional between Lahnda and [[Punjabi dialects#Eastern Punjabi|Eastern Punjabi]]; these are spoken by about 66 million people.<ref name=e26>{{e26|lah}}</ref>{{sfn|Shackle|1979|p=198}}
Lahnda includes the following languages: [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] (spoken mostly in southern [[Pakistani Punjab]] by about 26 million people), the diverse varieties of [[Hindko language|Hindko]] (with almost five million speakers in north-western Punjab and neighbouring regions of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], especially [[Hazara, Pakistan|Hazara]]), [[Pahari-Pothwari|Pahari/Pothwari]] (3.5 million speakers in north-central Punjab, [[Azad Kashmir]] and parts of Indian [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]]), [[Khetrani language|Khetrani]] (20,000 speakers in [[Balochistan, Pakistan|Balochistan]]), and [[Inku language|Inku]] (a possibly extinct language of Afghanistan).{{cn}} ''[[Ethnologue]]'' also subsumes under Lahnda a group of varieties that it labels as "Western Punjabi" ([[ISO 639-3]] code: ''pnb'') – the [[Majhi dialect]]s transitional between Lahnda and [[Punjabi dialects#Eastern Punjabi|Eastern Punjabi]]; these are spoken by about 66 million people.<ref name=e26>{{e26|lah}}</ref>{{sfn|Shackle|1979|p=198}}

Revision as of 15:06, 22 February 2023

For the scripts, see Laṇḍā scripts.

Lahnda
RegionWestern Punjab region
Perso-Arabic
(Shahmukhi alphabet)
Language codes
ISO 639-2lah
ISO 639-3lah

Lahnda (/ˈlɑːndə/;[1] لہندا), also known as Lahndi or Western Punjabi, is a group of north-western Indo-Aryan language varieties spoken in parts of Pakistan and India. It is defined in the ISO 639 standard as a "macrolanguage"[2] or as a "series of dialects" by other authors.[3][a] Its validity as a genetic grouping is not certain.[4] The terms "Lahnda" and "Western Punjabi" are exonyms employed by linguists, and are not used by the speakers themselves.[3]

Lahnda includes the following languages: Saraiki (spoken mostly in southern Pakistani Punjab by about 26 million people), the diverse varieties of Hindko (with almost five million speakers in north-western Punjab and neighbouring regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, especially Hazara), Pahari/Pothwari (3.5 million speakers in north-central Punjab, Azad Kashmir and parts of Indian Jammu and Kashmir), Khetrani (20,000 speakers in Balochistan), and Inku (a possibly extinct language of Afghanistan).[citation needed] Ethnologue also subsumes under Lahnda a group of varieties that it labels as "Western Punjabi" (ISO 639-3 code: pnb) – the Majhi dialects transitional between Lahnda and Eastern Punjabi; these are spoken by about 66 million people.[2][5]

Name

Lahnda means "western" in Punjabi. It was coined by William St. Clair Tisdall (in the form Lahindā) probably around 1890 and later adopted by a number of linguists — notably George Abraham Grierson — for a dialect group that had no general local name.[6]: 883  This term has currency only among linguists.[4]

Development

Saraiki and Hindko have been cultivated as literary languages.[7] The development of the standard written Saraiki began in the 1960s.[8][9] The national census of Pakistan has counted Saraiki and Hindko speakers since 1981.[10]

Classification

Lahnda has several traits that distinguish it from Punjabi, such as a future tense in -s-. Like Sindhi, Siraiki retains breathy-voiced consonants, has developed implosives, and lacks tone. Hindko, also called Panjistani or (ambiguously) Pahari, is more like Punjabi in this regard, though the equivalent of the low-rising tone of Punjabi is a high-falling tone in Peshawar Hindko.[7]

Sindhi, Lahnda and Punjabi form a dialect continuum with no clear-cut boundaries. Ethnologue classifies the western dialects of Punjabi as Lahnda, so that the Lahnda–Punjabi isogloss approximates the Pakistani–Indian border.[11]

Notes

  1. ^ For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see Shackle (1979) for Punjabi and Masica (1991, pp. 23–27) for Indo-Aryan generally.

References

  1. ^ "Lahnda". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  2. ^ a b Lahnda at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023) Closed access icon
  3. ^ a b Masica 1991, pp. 17–18. Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTEMasica199117–18" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Masica 1991, p. 18.
  5. ^ Shackle 1979, p. 198.
  6. ^ Grierson, George A. (1930). "Lahndā and Lahndī". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 5 (4): 883–887. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00090571. S2CID 160784067.
  7. ^ a b Shackle, Christopher (2010). "Lahnda". In Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 635. ISBN 9780080877754.
  8. ^ Rahman 1997, p. 838.
  9. ^ Shackle 1977.
  10. ^ Javaid 2004, p. 46.
  11. ^ Lahnda at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)

Bibliography

Further reading

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