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Coordinates: 33°3′20″N 35°29′28″E / 33.05556°N 35.49111°E / 33.05556; 35.49111
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rm a lot of rubbish: Alma did not become "an Arab village during the 19th century"!!!
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Undid revision 1141994642 by Huldra (talk) instead of removing half the article, we can fix (or mark) the disputed part
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'''Alma''' ({{lang-ar|علما}}) was a [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] [[Arab]] village in the [[Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine]]. It was depopulated during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]] on October 30, 1948, during [[Operation Hiram]]. It was located 10 km north of [[Safad]].
'''Alma''' ({{lang-ar|علما}}, {{Lang-he|עלמא}}) is a former village in [[Upper Galilee]], 10 km north of [[Safed]]. In medieval times, Alma was a [[Jews|Jewish]] settlement. It became an [[Arab]] village during the 19th century. Under [[Mandatory Palestine|British rule]], Alma was a part of the [[Safad Subdistrict, Mandatory Palestine|Safad Subdistrict]]. It was depopulated during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]] on October 30, 1948, during [[Operation Hiram]].


In 1949, a modern [[Israeli people|Israeli]] [[moshav]] named [[Alma, Israel|Alma]] was established east of the former village.
In 1945 it had a population of 950.<ref name=Khalidi>Khalidi, 1992, pp. 432–433.</ref>


==History==
==History==
Alma was located in Galilee about 4&nbsp;km south of the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] border.<REF name="Khalidi"/> Ceramics from the [[Byzantine empire|Byzantine]] era have been found here.<ref>Dauphin, 1998, p. 647</ref>
Alma was located in [[Galilee]] about 4&nbsp;km south of the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] border,<ref name="Khalidi">Khalidi, 1992, pp. 432–433.</ref> near the present-day kibbutz of Alma and the Circassian town of [[Rehaniya]]. There are several [[Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms#Khirbet|khirba]]s nearby.<ref name="Khalidi" /> Ceramics from the [[Byzantine empire|Byzantine]] era have been found here.<ref>Dauphin, 1998, p. 647</ref>


⚫
Remains of a ruined watch-tower was found on the crest of the ridge, and a quarter of a mile south of those there were three perfect [[dolmen]]s, not very large.<ref>Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p. [https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/220/mode/1up 220]</ref>
The [[Crusaders]] called the village "Alme." Alma had several nearby khirbas, and fragments of inscriptions from an ancient [[synagogue]] were found at the site of the village in the 20th century.<ref name=Khalidi/>


=== Middle ages ===
While travelling though the region in the 12th century CE, [[Benjamin of Tudela]] noted that Alma contained fifty Jewish inhabitants and a "large cemetery of the [[Israelites]]."<ref name=Tudelap89>[[Benjamin of Tudela]] in Thomas Wright. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QliW8XHtsa4C&pg=PA89 Early Travels in Palestine]''. Courier Corporation; 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-486-42871-0}}. p. 89.</ref>
While travelling though the region in the 12th century CE, [[Benjamin of Tudela]] noted that Alma contained fifty Jewish inhabitants and a "large cemetery of the [[Israelites]]."<ref name="Tudelap89">[[Benjamin of Tudela]] in Thomas Wright. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QliW8XHtsa4C&pg=PA89 Early Travels in Palestine]''. Courier Corporation; 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-486-42871-0}}. p. 89.</ref> Fragments of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic|Aramaic]] inscriptions from an ancient [[synagogue]] were found at the site of the village.<ref name="Khalidi" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Meyers|first1=Eric M.|last2=Strange|first2=James F.|last3=Groh|first3=Dennis E.|date=1978-04-01|title=The Meiron Excavation Project: Archeological Survey in Galilee and Golan, 1976|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/1356609|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=230|issue=230 |pages=1–24|doi=10.2307/1356609|jstor=1356609 |s2cid=163973484 |issn=0003-097X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hestrin|first=R.|date=1960|title=A New Aramaic Inscription from 'Alma|journal=Louis M. Rabinowitz Fund for the Exploration of Ancient Synagogues|volume=Bulletin III|pages=65–67}}</ref>


The [[Crusaders]] called the village "Alme".
⚫
Remains of a ruined watch-tower was found on the crest of the ridge, and a quarter of a mile south of those there were three perfect [[dolmen]]s, not very large.<ref>Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p. [https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/220/mode/1up 220]</ref>


===Ottoman era===
===Ottoman era===
At the beginning of the period of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman rule]] over Palestine, an Italian traveller to Alma in 1523 noted that there were 15 Jewish families there and one synagogue.<ref name=Schwarzp385>Schwarz, 1850, [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa;cc=moa;sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1;idno=AHZ1758.0001.001;seq=399 p. 385].</ref> In the Ottoman [[daftar|tax registers]] of 1596, the village is listed as forming part of the ''[[nahiya]]'' ("subdistrict") of Jira in the ''[[Liwa (Arabic)|liwa']]'' ("district") of [[Safad]].<ref name="Hutteroth"/> It had a relatively large population of 1,440,<ref name="Petersen141"/> consisting of 288 Muslim households and 140 Muslim bachelors, together with seven Jewish households and one Jewish bachelor. The village paid taxes on goats, beehives, a water-powered mill, and a press that was used for processing olives or grapes.<ref name="Hutteroth">Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 177</ref><ref>Note that Rhode, 1979, p. [https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century 6] writes that the register that Hütteroth and Abdulfattah studied was not from 1595/6, but from 1548/9</ref> Total tax revenue amounted to a substantial 51,100 [[akce]].<ref name="Petersen141">Petersen, 2005, p. [https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n141/mode/1up 133].</ref> Alma's prosperity was attributed to its close proximity to Safad.<ref>Petersen, 2005, p. [https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n49/mode/1up 42].</ref>
At the beginning of the period of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman rule]] over Palestine, an Italian traveller to Alma in 1523 noted that there were 15 Jewish families there and one synagogue.<ref name=Schwarzp385>Schwarz, 1850, [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=moa;cc=moa;sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1;idno=AHZ1758.0001.001;seq=399 p. 385].</ref>
In the Ottoman [[daftar|tax registers]] of 1596, the village is listed as forming part of the ''[[nahiya]]'' ("subdistrict") of Jira in the ''[[Liwa (Arabic)|liwa'<nowiki/>]]'' ("district") of [[Safad]].<ref name="Hutteroth" /> It had a relatively large population of 1,440,<ref name="Petersen141" /> consisting of 288 Muslim households and 140 Muslim bachelors, together with seven Jewish households and one Jewish bachelor. The village paid taxes on goats, beehives, a water-powered mill, and a press that was used for processing olives or grapes.<ref name="Hutteroth">Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 177</ref><ref>Note that Rhode, 1979, p. [https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century 6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420031504/https://www.academia.edu/2026845/The_Administration_and_Population_of_the_Sancak_of_Safed_in_the_Sixteenth_Century |date=2019-04-20 }} writes that the register that Hütteroth and Abdulfattah studied was not from 1595/6, but from 1548/9</ref> Total tax revenue amounted to a substantial 51,100 [[akce]].<ref name="Petersen141">Petersen, 2005, p. [https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n141/mode/1up 133].</ref> Alma's prosperity was attributed to its close proximity to Safad.<ref>Petersen, 2005, p. [https://archive.org/stream/TheTownsOfPalestineUnderUnderMuslimRule/AndrewPetersenTheTownsOfPalestineUnderMuslimRule-600-1600#page/n49/mode/1up 42].</ref>


The village was totally destroyed in the [[Galilee earthquake of 1837|earthquake of January 1837]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Nicholas N. Ambraseys |author-link=Nicholas Ambraseys| title = The earthquake of 1 January 1837 in Southern Lebanon and Northern Israel | journal = Annali di Geofisica | volume = XL | issue = 4 | year = 1997 | pages = 923–935 |doi=10.4401/ag-3887| doi-access = free }}</ref>
The village was totally destroyed in the [[Galilee earthquake of 1837|earthquake of January 1837]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Nicholas N. Ambraseys |author-link=Nicholas Ambraseys| title = The earthquake of 1 January 1837 in Southern Lebanon and Northern Israel | journal = Annali di Geofisica | volume = XL | issue = 4 | year = 1997 | pages = 923–935 |doi=10.4401/ag-3887| doi-access = free }}</ref>
[[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]] and [[Eli Smith]], who travelled to the region in 1838, give the full name of the village as '''Alma el-Khait'' ({{lang-ar|علماالخيط}}).<ref name=Robinsonp134>Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Second Appendix, p. [https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearch03robiuoft#page/134/mode/1up 134].</ref>
[[Edward Robinson (scholar)|Edward Robinson]] and [[Eli Smith]], who travelled to the region in 1838, give the full name of the village as '''Alma el-Khait'' ({{lang-ar|علماالخيط}}).<ref name=Robinsonp134>Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Second Appendix, p. [https://archive.org/stream/biblicalresearch03robiuoft#page/134/mode/1up 134].</ref>


[[James Finn]], the British consul to Jerusalem who travelled around Palestine between 1853 and 1856, describes the village of Alma as being situated in an area in which volcanic basalt was abundant. Around the village, women and children were gathering olives from the trees by beating them with poles and then collecting the fallen fruit. He notes that the small district in which the village is located is known by the locals as "the ''Khait''" (Arabic for "string") and that they "boast of its extraordinary fertility in corn-produce."<ref name=Finnp88>Finn, 1877, p. [https://archive.org/stream/byewaysinpalesti00finniala#page/108/mode/1up 108]</ref>
[[James Finn]], the British consul to Jerusalem who travelled around Palestine between 1853 and 1856, describes the village of Alma as being situated in an area in which volcanic [[basalt]] was abundant. Around the village, women and children were gathering olives from the trees by beating them with poles and then collecting the fallen fruit. He notes that the small district in which the village is located is known by the locals as "the ''Khait''" (Arabic for "string") and that they "boast of its extraordinary fertility in corn-produce."<ref name=Finnp88>Finn, 1877, p. [https://archive.org/stream/byewaysinpalesti00finniala#page/108/mode/1up 108]</ref>


[[Victor Guérin]] visited in 1875, and noted that 200 Muslim inhabitants lived there.<ref>Guérin, 1880, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr00gugoog#page/n485/mode/1up 445]-6</ref>
[[Victor Guérin]] visited in 1875, and noted that 200 Muslim inhabitants lived there.<ref>Guérin, 1880, pp. [https://archive.org/stream/descriptiongogr00gugoog#page/n485/mode/1up 445]-6</ref>
In ''The Survey of Western Palestine'' (1881), Alma is described as a village built of stone with about 250 "[[Algerine]] [[Mohammedan]]" residents, situated in the middle of a fertile plain with a few gardens.<ref name=SWP>Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, [https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/196/mode/1up p.196]. Also quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 432.</ref>
In ''The Survey of Western Palestine'' (1881), Alma is described as a village built of stone with about 250 "[[Algerine]] [[Mohammedan]]" residents, situated in the middle of a fertile plain with a few gardens.<ref name=SWP>Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, [https://archive.org/stream/surveyofwesternp01conduoft#page/196/mode/1up p.196]. Also quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 432.</ref>


A population list from about 1887 showed ''Alma'' to have about 1,105 Muslim inhabitants.<ref>Schumacher, 1888, p. [https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme19pale#page/n214/mode/1up 189]</ref>
A population list from about 1887 showed ''Alma'' to have about 1,105 Muslim inhabitants.<ref>Schumacher, 1888, p. [https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme19pale#page/n214/mode/1up 189]</ref>


===British Mandate period===
===British Mandate period===
Line 113: Line 116:


===1948 war and aftermath===
===1948 war and aftermath===
The village was attacked by the Israeli forces in [[Operation Hiram]] on 30 October 1948. Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]] has documented that Alma was the one village in the area where the villagers were uprooted and/or expelled by the Israeli forces, in spite of the fact that they had not offered any resistance.<ref>Morris, 2004, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA475 475]</ref>
The village was captured by the [[Israel Defense Forces]] in [[Operation Hiram]] on 30 October 1948. Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]] has documented that Alma was the one village in the area where the villagers were uprooted and/or expelled by the Israeli forces, in spite of the fact that they had not offered any resistance.<ref>Morris, 2004, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA475 475]</ref>
In 1949, the [[Israeli people|Israeli]] [[moshav]] of [[Alma, Israel|Alma]] was built about 0.5&nbsp;km east of where the built-up portion of the former village was located.
In 1949, the [[Israeli people|Israeli]] [[moshav]] of [[Alma, Israel|Alma]] was built about 0.5&nbsp;km east of where the built-up portion of the former village was located. Today, local farmers cultivate fruit and olives on the village site, which is fenced in and covered with rubble and the remains of buildings.<ref name="Khalidi" />

Israeli farmers cultivate fruit and olives on the village site, which is fenced in and covered with rubble and the remains of buildings.<ref name=Khalidi/>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 05:57, 28 February 2023

Alma
علما
Etymology: from personal name[1]
1870s map
1940s map
modern map
1940s with modern overlay map
A series of historical maps of the area around Alma, Safad (click the buttons)
Alma is located in Mandatory Palestine
Alma
Alma
Location within Mandatory Palestine
Coordinates: 33°3′20″N 35°29′28″E / 33.05556°N 35.49111°E / 33.05556; 35.49111
Palestine grid196/273
Geopolitical entityMandatory Palestine
SubdistrictSafad
Date of depopulationOctober 30, 1948[4]
Area
[2]
 • Total
19,498 dunams (19.498 km2 or 7.528 sq mi)
Population
 (1945)
 • Total
950[2][3]
Cause(s) of depopulationMilitary assault by Yishuv forces
Current LocalitiesAlma[5]

Alma (Template:Lang-ar, Template:Lang-he) is a former village in Upper Galilee, 10 km north of Safed. In medieval times, Alma was a Jewish settlement. It became an Arab village during the 19th century. Under British rule, Alma was a part of the Safad Subdistrict. It was depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War on October 30, 1948, during Operation Hiram.

In 1949, a modern Israeli moshav named Alma was established east of the former village.

History

Alma was located in Galilee about 4 km south of the Lebanese border,[6] near the present-day kibbutz of Alma and the Circassian town of Rehaniya. There are several khirbas nearby.[6] Ceramics from the Byzantine era have been found here.[7]

Remains of a ruined watch-tower was found on the crest of the ridge, and a quarter of a mile south of those there were three perfect dolmens, not very large.[8]

Middle ages

While travelling though the region in the 12th century CE, Benjamin of Tudela noted that Alma contained fifty Jewish inhabitants and a "large cemetery of the Israelites."[9] Fragments of Hebrew and Aramaic inscriptions from an ancient synagogue were found at the site of the village.[6][10][11]

The Crusaders called the village "Alme".

Ottoman era

At the beginning of the period of Ottoman rule over Palestine, an Italian traveller to Alma in 1523 noted that there were 15 Jewish families there and one synagogue.[12]

In the Ottoman tax registers of 1596, the village is listed as forming part of the nahiya ("subdistrict") of Jira in the liwa' ("district") of Safad.[13] It had a relatively large population of 1,440,[14] consisting of 288 Muslim households and 140 Muslim bachelors, together with seven Jewish households and one Jewish bachelor. The village paid taxes on goats, beehives, a water-powered mill, and a press that was used for processing olives or grapes.[13][15] Total tax revenue amounted to a substantial 51,100 akce.[14] Alma's prosperity was attributed to its close proximity to Safad.[16]

The village was totally destroyed in the earthquake of January 1837.[17] Edward Robinson and Eli Smith, who travelled to the region in 1838, give the full name of the village as 'Alma el-Khait (Template:Lang-ar).[18]

James Finn, the British consul to Jerusalem who travelled around Palestine between 1853 and 1856, describes the village of Alma as being situated in an area in which volcanic basalt was abundant. Around the village, women and children were gathering olives from the trees by beating them with poles and then collecting the fallen fruit. He notes that the small district in which the village is located is known by the locals as "the Khait" (Arabic for "string") and that they "boast of its extraordinary fertility in corn-produce."[19]

Victor Guérin visited in 1875, and noted that 200 Muslim inhabitants lived there.[20] In The Survey of Western Palestine (1881), Alma is described as a village built of stone with about 250 "Algerine Mohammedan" residents, situated in the middle of a fertile plain with a few gardens.[21]

A population list from about 1887 showed Alma to have about 1,105 Muslim inhabitants.[22]

British Mandate period

The population of Alma in the 1922 census consisted of 309 Muslims,[23] increasing to 712 Muslims in 148 occupied houses by 1931.[24]

In the 1945 statistics, the population had reached 950,[2][25] still all Muslim.[26]

The villagers were heavily involved in agriculture, including raising livestock and growing crops.[6] During the 1942/43 season olive trees were recorded as being grown on 750 dunums of village land, 550 dunums of which were fruit-bearing trees. It was the largest olive grove in Safad district.[6] In 1944–45 983 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards and 7,475 dunums were devoted to cereal crops.[6][27]

The village comprised a total area of 19,498 dunums of which 17,240 dunums was run by Arabs and the rest public. The population of the village was entirely Arab in ethnicity and Muslim in religion.[27] They had their own mosque and elementary school, which pupils from al-Rihaniyya also attended.[6]

A large number of inhabitants were employed in cereal farming, which occupied about 38% of the land area.[27] Some land was also allocated for irrigation and plantation, and the growing of olives.

1948 war and aftermath

The village was captured by the Israel Defense Forces in Operation Hiram on 30 October 1948. Israeli historian Benny Morris has documented that Alma was the one village in the area where the villagers were uprooted and/or expelled by the Israeli forces, in spite of the fact that they had not offered any resistance.[29]

In 1949, the Israeli moshav of Alma was built about 0.5 km east of where the built-up portion of the former village was located. Today, local farmers cultivate fruit and olives on the village site, which is fenced in and covered with rubble and the remains of buildings.[6]

References

  1. ^ Palmer, pp. 66, 17, 61
  2. ^ a b c d Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 69 Archived 2011-06-04 at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ Department of Statistics, 1945, p. 9
  4. ^ Morris, 2004, p. xvi, village #33. Also gives cause of depopulation
  5. ^ Morris, 2004, p. xxii, settlement #162.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Khalidi, 1992, pp. 432–433.
  7. ^ Dauphin, 1998, p. 647
  8. ^ Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p. 220
  9. ^ Benjamin of Tudela in Thomas Wright. Early Travels in Palestine. Courier Corporation; 2003. ISBN 978-0-486-42871-0. p. 89.
  10. ^ Meyers, Eric M.; Strange, James F.; Groh, Dennis E. (1978-04-01). "The Meiron Excavation Project: Archeological Survey in Galilee and Golan, 1976". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 230 (230): 1–24. doi:10.2307/1356609. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1356609. S2CID 163973484.
  11. ^ Hestrin, R. (1960). "A New Aramaic Inscription from 'Alma". Louis M. Rabinowitz Fund for the Exploration of Ancient Synagogues. Bulletin III: 65–67.
  12. ^ Schwarz, 1850, p. 385.
  13. ^ a b Hütteroth and Abdulfattah, 1977, p. 177
  14. ^ a b Petersen, 2005, p. 133.
  15. ^ Note that Rhode, 1979, p. 6 Archived 2019-04-20 at the Wayback Machine writes that the register that Hütteroth and Abdulfattah studied was not from 1595/6, but from 1548/9
  16. ^ Petersen, 2005, p. 42.
  17. ^ Nicholas N. Ambraseys (1997). "The earthquake of 1 January 1837 in Southern Lebanon and Northern Israel". Annali di Geofisica. XL (4): 923–935. doi:10.4401/ag-3887.
  18. ^ Robinson and Smith, 1841, vol 3, Second Appendix, p. 134.
  19. ^ Finn, 1877, p. 108
  20. ^ Guérin, 1880, pp. 445-6
  21. ^ Conder and Kitchener, 1881, SWP I, p.196. Also quoted in Khalidi, 1992, p. 432.
  22. ^ Schumacher, 1888, p. 189
  23. ^ Barron, 1923, Table XI, p. 41
  24. ^ Mills, 1932, p. 105
  25. ^ Khalidi, 1992, p. 432
  26. ^ United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Village Statistics, April 1945, p. 4 Archived June 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ a b c d Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 118 Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine
  28. ^ Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April, 1945. Quoted in Hadawi, 1970, p. 168 Archived 2014-11-01 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ^ Morris, 2004, p. 475

Bibliography

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