Tetracycline: Difference between revisions
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=== Spectrum of activity === |
=== Spectrum of activity === |
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Tetracyclines have a broad spectrum of antibiotic action. Originally, they possessed some level of bacteriostatic activity against almost all medically relevant [[Aerobic bacteria|aerobic]] and [[Anaerobic bacteria|anaerobic]] bacterial genera, both [[Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive]] and [[Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]], with a few exceptions, such as ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' and [[Proteus (bacterium)|''Proteus'' spp.]], which display intrinsic resistance. However, acquired (as opposed to inherent) resistance has proliferated in many [[pathogenic organisms]] and greatly eroded the formerly vast versatility of this group of antibiotics. Resistance amongst [[Staphylococcus|''Staphylococcus'' spp.]], [[Streptococcus|''Streptococcus'' spp.]], ''[[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]]'', anaerobes, members of the [[Enterobacteriaceae]], and several other previously sensitive organisms is now quite common. Tetracyclines remain especially useful in the management of infections by certain obligately intracellular bacterial pathogens such as ''[[Chlamydia (genus)|Chlamydia]]'', ''[[Mycoplasma]]'', and ''[[Rickettsia]]''. They are also of value in [[Spirochete|spirochaetal]] infections, such as [[syphilis]], and [[Lyme disease]]. Certain rare or exotic infections, including [[anthrax]], [[Plague (disease)|plague]], and [[brucellosis]], are also susceptible to tetracyclines. Tetracycline tablets were used in the plague outbreak in India in 1994.<ref>Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology, 4th ed. Harvery RA, Champe, PC. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2009</ref> Tetracycline is first-line therapy for [[Rocky Mountain spotted fever]] (''Rickettsia''), [[Lyme disease]] (''B. burgdorferi''), [[Q fever]] (''Coxiella''), [[psittacosis]], ''[[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]]'', and nasal carriage of [[Neisseria meningitidis|meningococci]].{{cn}} |
Tetracyclines have a broad spectrum of antibiotic action. Originally, they possessed some level of bacteriostatic activity against almost all medically relevant [[Aerobic bacteria|aerobic]] and [[Anaerobic bacteria|anaerobic]] bacterial genera, both [[Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive]] and [[Gram-negative bacteria|Gram-negative]], with a few exceptions, such as ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' and [[Proteus (bacterium)|''Proteus'' spp.]], which display intrinsic resistance. However, acquired (as opposed to inherent) resistance has proliferated in many [[pathogenic organisms]] and greatly eroded the formerly vast versatility of this group of antibiotics. Resistance amongst [[Staphylococcus|''Staphylococcus'' spp.]], [[Streptococcus|''Streptococcus'' spp.]], ''[[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]]'', anaerobes, members of the [[Enterobacteriaceae]], and several other previously sensitive organisms is now quite common. Tetracyclines remain especially useful in the management of infections by certain obligately intracellular bacterial pathogens such as ''[[Chlamydia (genus)|Chlamydia]]'', ''[[Mycoplasma]]'', and ''[[Rickettsia]]''. They are also of value in [[Spirochete|spirochaetal]] infections, such as [[syphilis]], and [[Lyme disease]]. Certain rare or exotic infections, including [[anthrax]], [[Plague (disease)|plague]], and [[brucellosis]], are also susceptible to tetracyclines. Tetracycline tablets were used in the plague outbreak in India in 1994.<ref>Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology, 4th ed. Harvery RA, Champe, PC. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2009</ref> Tetracycline is first-line therapy for [[Rocky Mountain spotted fever]] (''Rickettsia''), [[Lyme disease]] (''B. burgdorferi''), [[Q fever]] (''Coxiella''), [[psittacosis]], ''[[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]]'', and nasal carriage of [[Neisseria meningitidis|meningococci]].{{cn|date=March 2023}} |
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It is also one of a group of antibiotics which together may be used to treat [[Peptic ulcer#H. pylori 2|peptic ulcers]] caused by bacterial infections. The mechanism of action for the antibacterial effect of tetracyclines relies on disrupting protein translation in bacteria, thereby damaging the ability of microbes to grow and repair; however, protein translation is also disrupted in eukaryotic [[mitochondria]] leading to effects that may [[confound]] experimental results.<ref name="pmid25772356">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moullan N, Mouchiroud L, Wang X, Ryu D, Williams EG, Mottis A, Jovaisaite V, Frochaux MV, Quiros PM, Deplancke B, Houtkooper RH, Auwerx J | display-authors = 6 | title = Tetracyclines Disturb Mitochondrial Function across Eukaryotic Models: A Call for Caution in Biomedical Research | journal = Cell Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 10 | pages = 1681–1691 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25772356 | pmc = 4565776 | doi = 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.02.034 }}</ref><ref name="pmid26475870">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chatzispyrou IA, Held NM, Mouchiroud L, Auwerx J, Houtkooper RH | title = Tetracycline antibiotics impair mitochondrial function and its experimental use confounds research | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 75 | issue = 21 | pages = 4446–4449 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26475870 | pmc = 4631686 | doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-1626 }}</ref> |
It is also one of a group of antibiotics which together may be used to treat [[Peptic ulcer#H. pylori 2|peptic ulcers]] caused by bacterial infections. The mechanism of action for the antibacterial effect of tetracyclines relies on disrupting protein translation in bacteria, thereby damaging the ability of microbes to grow and repair; however, protein translation is also disrupted in eukaryotic [[mitochondria]] leading to effects that may [[confound]] experimental results.<ref name="pmid25772356">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moullan N, Mouchiroud L, Wang X, Ryu D, Williams EG, Mottis A, Jovaisaite V, Frochaux MV, Quiros PM, Deplancke B, Houtkooper RH, Auwerx J | display-authors = 6 | title = Tetracyclines Disturb Mitochondrial Function across Eukaryotic Models: A Call for Caution in Biomedical Research | journal = Cell Reports | volume = 10 | issue = 10 | pages = 1681–1691 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25772356 | pmc = 4565776 | doi = 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.02.034 }}</ref><ref name="pmid26475870">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chatzispyrou IA, Held NM, Mouchiroud L, Auwerx J, Houtkooper RH | title = Tetracycline antibiotics impair mitochondrial function and its experimental use confounds research | journal = Cancer Research | volume = 75 | issue = 21 | pages = 4446–4449 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26475870 | pmc = 4631686 | doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-1626 }}</ref> |
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===Anti-eukaryote use=== |
===Anti-eukaryote use=== |
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The tetracyclines also have activity against certain [[Eukaryota|eukaryotic]] parasites, including those responsible for diseases such as [[Amoebic dysentery|dysentery]] caused by an [[amoeba]], [[malaria]] (a [[plasmodium]]), and [[balantidiasis]] (a [[ciliate]]).{{cn}} |
The tetracyclines also have activity against certain [[Eukaryota|eukaryotic]] parasites, including those responsible for diseases such as [[Amoebic dysentery|dysentery]] caused by an [[amoeba]], [[malaria]] (a [[plasmodium]]), and [[balantidiasis]] (a [[ciliate]]).{{cn|date=March 2023}} |
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===Use as a biomarker=== |
===Use as a biomarker=== |
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===Names=== |
===Names=== |
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It is marketed under the brand names Sumycin, Tetracyn, and Panmycin, among others. Actisite is a thread-like fiber formulation used in dental applications.{{cn}} |
It is marketed under the brand names Sumycin, Tetracyn, and Panmycin, among others. Actisite is a thread-like fiber formulation used in dental applications.{{cn|date=March 2023}} |
||
It is also used to produce several semisynthetic derivatives, which together are known as the [[tetracycline antibiotics]]. The term "tetracycline" is also used to denote the four-ring system of this compound; "tetracyclines" are related substances that contain the same four-ring system.{{cn}} |
It is also used to produce several semisynthetic derivatives, which together are known as the [[tetracycline antibiotics]]. The term "tetracycline" is also used to denote the four-ring system of this compound; "tetracyclines" are related substances that contain the same four-ring system.{{cn|date=March 2023}} |
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===Media=== |
===Media=== |
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Revision as of 15:55, 9 March 2023
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| Clinical data | |
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| Pronunciation | /ˌtɛtrəˈsaɪkliːn/ |
| AHFS/Drugs.com | Monograph |
| MedlinePlus | a682098 |
| License data |
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| Pregnancy category |
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| Routes of administration | By mouth |
| ATC code | |
| Legal status | |
| Legal status |
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| Pharmacokinetic data | |
| Bioavailability | 80% |
| Metabolism | Not metabolized |
| Elimination half-life | 8–11 hours, 57–108 hours (kidney impairment) |
| Excretion | Urine (>60%), feces |
| Identifiers | |
| CAS Number | |
| PubChem CID | |
| DrugBank | |
| ChemSpider | |
| UNII | |
| KEGG | |
| ChEBI | |
| ChEMBL | |
| PDB ligand | |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | |
| ECHA InfoCard | 100.000.438 |
| Chemical and physical data | |
| Formula | C22H24N2O8 |
| Molar mass | 444.440 g·mol−1 |
| 3D model (JSmol) | |
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Tetracycline, sold under various brand names, is an oral antibiotic in the tetracyclines family of medications, used to treat a number of infections,[1] including acne, cholera, brucellosis, plague, malaria, and syphilis.[1]
Common side effects include vomiting, diarrhea, rash, and loss of appetite.[1] Other side effects include poor tooth development if used by children less than eight years of age, kidney problems, and sunburning easily.[1] Use during pregnancy may harm the baby.[1] It works by inhibiting protein synthesis in bacteria.[1]
Tetracycline was patented in 1953 and came into commercial use in 1978.[2] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[3] Tetracycline is available as a generic medication.[1] Tetracycline was originally made from bacteria of the genus Streptomyces.[1]
Medical uses
Spectrum of activity
Tetracyclines have a broad spectrum of antibiotic action. Originally, they possessed some level of bacteriostatic activity against almost all medically relevant aerobic and anaerobic bacterial genera, both Gram-positive and Gram-negative, with a few exceptions, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus spp., which display intrinsic resistance. However, acquired (as opposed to inherent) resistance has proliferated in many pathogenic organisms and greatly eroded the formerly vast versatility of this group of antibiotics. Resistance amongst Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Neisseria gonorrhoeae, anaerobes, members of the Enterobacteriaceae, and several other previously sensitive organisms is now quite common. Tetracyclines remain especially useful in the management of infections by certain obligately intracellular bacterial pathogens such as Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, and Rickettsia. They are also of value in spirochaetal infections, such as syphilis, and Lyme disease. Certain rare or exotic infections, including anthrax, plague, and brucellosis, are also susceptible to tetracyclines. Tetracycline tablets were used in the plague outbreak in India in 1994.[4] Tetracycline is first-line therapy for Rocky Mountain spotted fever (Rickettsia), Lyme disease (B. burgdorferi), Q fever (Coxiella), psittacosis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and nasal carriage of meningococci.[citation needed]
It is also one of a group of antibiotics which together may be used to treat peptic ulcers caused by bacterial infections. The mechanism of action for the antibacterial effect of tetracyclines relies on disrupting protein translation in bacteria, thereby damaging the ability of microbes to grow and repair; however, protein translation is also disrupted in eukaryotic mitochondria leading to effects that may confound experimental results.[5][6]
The following list presents MIC susceptibility data for some medically significant microorganisms:
- Escherichia coli: 1 μg/mL to >128 μg/mL
- Shigella spp.: 1 μg/mL to 128 μg/mL[7]
Anti-eukaryote use
The tetracyclines also have activity against certain eukaryotic parasites, including those responsible for diseases such as dysentery caused by an amoeba, malaria (a plasmodium), and balantidiasis (a ciliate).[citation needed]
Use as a biomarker
Since tetracycline is absorbed into bone, it is used as a marker of bone growth for biopsies in humans. Tetracycline labeling is used to determine the amount of bone growth within a certain period of time, usually a period around 21 days. Tetracycline is incorporated into mineralizing bone and can be detected by its fluorescence.[8] In "double tetracycline labeling", a second dose is given 11–14 days after the first dose, and the amount of bone formed during that interval can be calculated by measuring the distance between the two fluorescent labels.[9]
Tetracycline is also used as a biomarker in wildlife to detect consumption of medicine- or vaccine-containing baits.[10]
Side effects
Use of tetracycline antibiotics can:[11]
- Discolor permanent teeth (yellow-gray-brown), from prenatal period through childhood and adulthood. Children receiving long- or short-term therapy with a tetracycline or glycylcycline may develop permanent brown discoloration of the teeth.
This article needs additional citations for verification. (November 2022) - Be inactivated by calcium ions, so are not to be taken with milk, yogurt, and other dairy products
- Be inactivated by aluminium, iron, and zinc ions, not to be taken at the same time as indigestion remedies (some common antacids and over-the-counter heartburn medicines)
- Cause skin photosensitivity, so exposure to the sun or intense light is not recommended
- Cause drug-induced lupus, and hepatitis
- Cause microvesicular fatty liver
- Cause tinnitus[12]
- Interfere with methotrexate by displacing it from the various protein-binding sites
- Cause breathing complications, as well as anaphylactic shock, in some individuals
- Affect bone growth of the fetus, so should be avoided during pregnancy
- Fanconi syndrome may result from ingesting expired tetracyclines.
Caution should be exercised in long-term use when breastfeeding. Short-term use is safe; bioavailability in milk is low to nil.[13] According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), cases of Stevens–Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, and erythema multiforme associated with doxycycline use have been reported, but a causative role has not been established.[14]
Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
Tetracycline inhibits protein synthesis by blocking the attachment of charged tRNA at the P site peptide chain. Tetracycline blocks the A-site so that a hydrogen bond is not formed between the amino acids. Tetracycline binds to the 30S and 50S subunit of microbial ribosomes.[1] Thus, it prevents the formation of a peptide chain.[15] The action is usually not inhibitory and irreversible even with the withdrawal of the drug. Mammalian cells are less vulnerable to the effect of tetracyclines, despite the fact that tetracycline binds to the small ribosomal subunit of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes (30S and 40S, respectively). This is because bacteria actively pump tetracycline in, even against a concentration gradient, whereas mammalian cells are simply not affected by the mechanisms of tetracycline within the cytoplasm. This accounts for the relatively small off-site effect of tetracycline on human cells.[16]
Mechanisms of resistance
Bacteria usually acquire resistance to tetracycline from horizontal transfer of a gene that either encodes an efflux pump or a ribosomal protection protein. Efflux pumps actively eject tetracycline from the cell, preventing the buildup of an inhibitory concentration of tetracycline in the cytoplasm.[17] Ribosomal protection proteins interact with the ribosome and dislodge tetracycline from the ribosome, allowing for translation to continue.[18]
History
Discovery
The tetracyclines, a large family of antibiotics, were discovered by Benjamin Minge Duggar in 1948 as natural products, and first prescribed in 1948.[19] Benjamin Duggar, working under Yellapragada Subbarow at Lederle Laboratories, discovered the first tetracycline antibiotic, chlortetracycline (Aureomycin), in 1945.[20] The structure of Aureomycin was elucidated in 1952 and published in 1954 by the Pfizer-Woodward group.[21] After the discovery of the structure, researchers at Pfizer began chemically modifying aureomycin by treating it with hydrogen in the presence of a palladized carbon catalyst. This chemical reaction replaced a chlorine moiety with a hydrogen, creating a compound named tetracycline via hydrogenolysis.[22] Tetracycline displayed higher potency, better solubility, and more favorable pharmacology than the other antibiotics in its class, leading to its FDA approval in 1954. The new compound was one of the first commercially successful semi-synthetic antibiotics that was used, and laid the foundation for the development of Sancycline, Minocycline, and later the Glycylcyclines.[23]
Evidence in antiquity
Our modern understanding of tetracyclines dates their discovery to 1948, but there is evidence that early inhabitants of Northeastern Africa consumed tetracycline antibiotics. Nubian mummies from between 350 and 550 A.D. were found to exhibit patterns of fluorescence identical with that of modern tetracycline labelled bone.[24]
Tetracycline has a high affinity for calcium and is incorporated into bones during the active mineralization of hydroxyapatite. When incorporated into bones, tetracycline can be identified using ultraviolet light.[25]
It is conjectured that the beer brewed at the time was the source of the tetracycline found in these bones.[26]
Society and culture
Price
According to data from EvaluatePharma and published in the Boston Globe, in the USA the price of tetracycline rose from $0.06 per 250-mg pill in 2013 to $4.06 a pill in 2015.[27] The Globe described the "big price hikes of some generic drugs" as a "relatively new phenomenon" which has left most pharmacists "grappling" with large upswings" in the "costs of generics, with 'overnight' price changes sometimes exceeding 1,000%."[27]
Names
It is marketed under the brand names Sumycin, Tetracyn, and Panmycin, among others. Actisite is a thread-like fiber formulation used in dental applications.[citation needed]
It is also used to produce several semisynthetic derivatives, which together are known as the tetracycline antibiotics. The term "tetracycline" is also used to denote the four-ring system of this compound; "tetracyclines" are related substances that contain the same four-ring system.[citation needed]
Media
Due to the drug's association with fighting infections, it serves as the main "commodity" in the science fiction series Aftermath, with the search for tetracycline becoming a major preoccupation in later episodes.[28]
Research
Genetic engineering
In genetic engineering, tetracycline is used in transcriptional activation. It has been used as an engineered "control switch" in chronic myelogenous leukemia models in mice. Engineers were able to develop a retrovirus that induced a particular type of leukemia in mice, and could then "switch" the cancer on and off through tetracycline administration. This could be used to grow the cancer in mice and then halt it at a particular stage to allow for further experimentation or study.[29]
A technique being developed for the control of the mosquito species Aedes aegypti (the infection vector for yellow fever, dengue fever, Zika fever, and several other diseases) uses a strain that is genetically modified to require tetracycline to develop beyond the larval stage. Modified males raised in a laboratory develop normally as they are supplied with this chemical and can be released into the wild. Their subsequent offspring inherit this trait, but find no tetracycline in their environments, so never develop into adults.[30]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Tetracycline". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
- ^ Fischer J, Ganellin CR (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 489. ISBN 9783527607495. Archived from the original on 2016-12-20.
- ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
- ^ Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology, 4th ed. Harvery RA, Champe, PC. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2009
- ^ Moullan N, Mouchiroud L, Wang X, Ryu D, Williams EG, Mottis A, et al. (March 2015). "Tetracyclines Disturb Mitochondrial Function across Eukaryotic Models: A Call for Caution in Biomedical Research". Cell Reports. 10 (10): 1681–1691. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2015.02.034. PMC 4565776. PMID 25772356.
- ^ Chatzispyrou IA, Held NM, Mouchiroud L, Auwerx J, Houtkooper RH (November 2015). "Tetracycline antibiotics impair mitochondrial function and its experimental use confounds research". Cancer Research. 75 (21): 4446–4449. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-1626. PMC 4631686. PMID 26475870.
- ^ "Tetracycline hydrochloride" (PDF). Susceptibility and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Data. TOKU-E. 8 September 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 September 2015.
- ^ Mayton CA. "Tetracycline labeling of bone". Archived from the original on 2007-03-12.
- ^ "Tetracycline Labeling". The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions. 8 January 2001. Archived from the original on 2012-12-15.
- ^ Olson CA, Mitchell KD, Werner PA (October 2000). "Bait ingestion by free-ranging raccoons and nontarget species in an oral rabies vaccine field trial in Florida". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 36 (4): 734–743. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-36.4.734. PMID 11085436. S2CID 35102508. Archived from the original on 2013-04-15.
- ^ "Tetracycline: MedlinePlus Drug Information". medlineplus.gov. Archived from the original on 2017-05-10. Retrieved 2017-05-19.
- ^ Schlossberg DL, Samuel R (2017). Antibiotics Manual : A Guide to Commonly Used Antimicrobials. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 367 – via ProQuest Ebook Central.
- ^ Riordan J, Wambach K, eds. (November 2010). Breastfeeding and Human Lactation. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 179.
- ^ "FDA Adverse Events Reporting System". Food and Drug Administration. 27 August 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-01-17. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
- ^ Mehta A (2011-05-27). "Mechanism of Action of Tetracyclines". Pharmaxchange.info. Archived from the original on 2012-06-05. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
- ^ Todar K (2012). "Antimicrobial Agents in the Treatment of Infectious Disease.". Todars Online Text Book of Bacteriology. Archived from the original on 2013-10-08. Retrieved 2013-08-27.
- ^ Chopra I, Roberts M (June 2001). "Tetracycline antibiotics: mode of action, applications, molecular biology, and epidemiology of bacterial resistance". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 65 (2): 232–60, second page, table of contents. doi:10.1128/MMBR.65.2.232-260.2001. PMC 99026. PMID 11381101.
- ^ Connell SR, Tracz DM, Nierhaus KH, Taylor DE (December 2003). "Ribosomal protection proteins and their mechanism of tetracycline resistance". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 47 (12): 3675–3681. doi:10.1128/AAC.47.12.3675-3681.2003. PMC 296194. PMID 14638464.
- ^ Klajn R. "Chemistry and chemical biology of tetracyclines". Archived from the original on 2007-06-17. Retrieved 20 June 2007. [better source needed]
- ^ Jukes TH (1985). "Some historical notes on chlortetracycline". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 7 (5): 702–707. doi:10.1093/clinids/7.5.702. JSTOR 4453725. PMID 3903946.
- ^ Stephens CR, Conover LH, Pasternack R, Hochstein FA, Moreland WT, Regna PP, et al. (July 1954). "The Structure of Aureomycin 1". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 76 (13): 3568–3575. doi:10.1021/ja01642a064. ISSN 0002-7863.
- ^ Conover LH, Moreland WT, English AR, Stephens CR, Pilgrim FJ (September 1953). "Terramycin. Xi. Tetracycline". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 75 (18): 4622–4623. doi:10.1021/ja01114a537. ISSN 0002-7863.
- ^ Nelson ML, Levy SB (December 2011). "The history of the tetracyclines". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1241 (1): 17–32. Bibcode:2011NYASA1241...17N. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06354.x. PMID 22191524. S2CID 34647314.
- ^ Bassett EJ, Keith MS, Armelagos GJ, Martin DL, Villanueva AR (September 1980). "Tetracycline-labeled human bone from ancient Sudanese Nubia (A.D. 350)". Science. 209 (4464): 1532–1534. Bibcode:1980Sci...209.1532B. doi:10.1126/science.7001623. PMID 7001623.
- ^ Pautke C, Vogt S, Kreutzer K, Haczek C, Wexel G, Kolk A, et al. (July 2010). "Characterization of eight different tetracyclines: advances in fluorescence bone labeling". Journal of Anatomy. 217 (1): 76–82. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01237.x. PMC 2913014. PMID 20456523.
- ^ Armelagos G (2000). "Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians". Natural History. 109 (4): 50–53.
- ^ a b McCluskey PD (6 November 2015). "As competition wanes, prices for generics skyrocket". Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015.
- ^ "Aftermath Episode Recap". SyFy Channel. Retrieved 15 April 2020.
- ^ Dugray A, Geay JF, Foudi A, Bonnet ML, Vainchenker W, Wendling F, et al. (October 2001). "Rapid generation of a tetracycline-inducible BCR-ABL defective retrovirus using a single autoregulatory retroviral cassette". Leukemia. 15 (10): 1658–1662. doi:10.1038/sj.leu.2402225. PMID 11587226. S2CID 40155100.
- ^ Urquhart C (15 July 2012). "Can GM mosquitoes rid the world of a major killer?". The Observer. Archived from the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 2012-07-15.
External links
- "Tetracycline". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
