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{{Short description|Indo-Aryan language group}}
{{Short description|Indo-Aryan Punjabic language group}}
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The [[Indo-Aryan language]]{{efn|There is no consensus among linguists or Pahari-Pothwari speakers in terms of its status as a dialect of Punjabi or a separate language entirely. For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see {{harvtxt|Shackle|1979}} for Punjabi and {{harvtxt|Masica|1991|pp=23–27}} for [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] generally.}} spoken on the [[Pothohar Plateau]] in the far north of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Pakistani Punjab]], as well as in most of Pakistan's [[Azad Kashmir]] and in western areas of India's [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], is known by a variety of names, the most common of which are '''Pahari''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|p|ə|ˈ|h|ɑː|r|i}};<ref>{{Cite OED|Pahari}}</ref> [[Pahari language|an ambiguous name]] also applied to unrelated languages of India), and '''Pothwari''' (or '''Pothohari''').
'''Pahari Pothwari''' (also known as '''Potohari''' and by a variety of names) is a group of [[Indo-Aryan language|Indo-Aryan]] [[Punjabi dialects and languages|Punjabic languages and dialects]] of [[Lahnda]] group{{efn|There is no consensus among linguists or Pahari-Pothwari speakers in terms of its status as a dialect of Punjabi or a separate language entirely. For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see {{harvtxt|Shackle|1979}} for Punjabi and {{harvtxt|Masica|1991|pp=23–27}} for [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] generally.}} spoken on the [[Pothohar Plateau]] in the far north of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], as well as [[Azad Kashmir]] of [[Pakistan]] and in western areas of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] of [[India]].


The language is transitional between [[Hindko language|Hindko]] and Standard [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]{{sfn|Shackle|1979|pp=200–201}} and is mutually intelligible with both.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hussain |first=Qandeel |date=2020-12-31 |title=Punjabi (India and Pakistan) – Language Snapshot |url=https://lddjournal.org/articles/10.25894/ldd71 |language=en-US |volume=19 |pages=144 |doi=10.25894/ldd71}}</ref> There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language,{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=440}} although a local standard has not been established yet.{{sfn|Shackle|1983|p=183}}
The language is transitional between [[Hindko language|Hindko]] and Standard [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]{{sfn|Shackle|1979|pp=200–201}} and is mutually intelligible with both.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hussain |first=Qandeel |date=2020-12-31 |title=Punjabi (India and Pakistan) – Language Snapshot |url=https://lddjournal.org/articles/10.25894/ldd71 |language=en-US |volume=19 |pages=144 |doi=10.25894/ldd71}}</ref> There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language,{{sfn|Masica|1991|p=440}} although a local standard has not been established yet.{{sfn|Shackle|1983|p=183}}

Revision as of 11:53, 9 April 2023

Pahari-Pothwari
پوٹھواری, پہاڑی
Poṭhwārī, Pahāṛī
Native toPakistan, India
RegionPothohar region, Azad Kashmir and western parts of Jammu and Kashmir, other parts of India including Punjab and Haryana (by partition refugees and descendants)
Native speakers
several million[a]
Shahmukhi
Language codes
ISO 639-3phr
Glottologpaha1251  Pahari Potwari

Pahari Pothwari (also known as Potohari and by a variety of names) is a group of Indo-Aryan Punjabic languages and dialects of Lahnda group[b] spoken on the Pothohar Plateau in the far north of Punjab, as well as Azad Kashmir of Pakistan and in western areas of Jammu and Kashmir of India.

The language is transitional between Hindko and Standard Punjabi[1] and is mutually intelligible with both.[2] There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language,[3] although a local standard has not been established yet.[4]

Grierson in his early 20th-century Linguistic Survey of India assigned it to a so-called "Northern cluster" of Lahnda (Western Punjabi), but this classification, as well as the validity of the Lahnda grouping in this case, have been called into question.[5]

Geographic distribution and dialects

Map
About OpenStreetMaps
Maps: terms of use
75km
50miles
Baramulla
Srinagar
Bagh
Rajouri
Poonch
Jhelum
Murree
Mirpur
Gujarkhan
Bharakao
Abbottabad
Muzaffarabad
Azad Kashmir and surrounding areas with some of the locations mentioned in this section. Places where Pahari–Pothwari is spoken are in dark red.

There are at least three major dialects: Pothwari, Mirpuri and Pahari.[c] The Pothwari spoken in Gujar Khan is regarded as the most prestigious dialect of Pothwari spoken in Pakistan.[6]

The dialects are mutually intelligible,[7] but the difference between the northernmost and the southernmost dialects (from Muzaffarabad and Mirpur respectively) is enough to cause difficulties in understanding.[8]

Pothohar Plateau

Pothwari (پوٹھواری), also spelt Potwari, Potohari and Pothohari (پوٹھوہاری),[9] is spoken in the Pothohar Plateau of northern Punjab,[10] an area administratively within Rawalpindi division.[11] Pothwari is its most common name, and some call it Pindiwal Punjabi to differentiate it from the Punjabi spoken elsewhere in Punjab.[12]

Pothwari extends southwards up to the Salt Range, with the city of Jhelum marking the border with Punjabi. To the north, Pothwari transitions into the Pahari-speaking area, with Bharakao, near Islamabad, generally regarded as the point where Pothwari ends and Pahari begins.[13] Pothwari has been represented as a dialect of Punjabi by the Punjabi language movement, [4] and in census reports the Pothwari areas of Punjab have been shown as Punjabi-majority.[d]

Among the dialects of the Pahari-Pothwari dialect cluster, the variety spoken on the Pothohar is the most mutually intelligible with Punjabi because of geographic proximity with other regions of the Punjab.[citation needed] This Pothwari is also regarded as the most prestigious dialect spoken in the region.[citation needed]

Mirpur

East of the Pothwari areas, across the Jhelum River into Mirpur District in Azad Kashmir, the language is more similar to Pothwari than to the Pahari spoken in the rest of Azad Kashmir.[14] Locally it is known by a variety of names:[e] Pahari, Mirpur Pahari, Mirpuri,[f] and Pothwari,[15] while some of its speakers call it Punjabi.[16] Mirpuris possess a strong sense of Kashmiri identity that overrides linguistic identification with closely related groups outside Azad Kashmir, such as the Punjabis of the Pothohar.[17] The Mirpur region has been the source of the greater part of Pakistani immigration to the UK, a process that started when thousands were displaced by the construction of the Mangla Dam in the 1960s and emigrated to fill labour shortages in England.[18] The British Mirpuri diaspora now numbers several hundred thousand, and Pahari has been argued to be the second most common mother tongue in the UK, yet the language is little known in the wider society there and its status has remained surrounded by confusion.[19]

Kashmir, Murree and the Galyat

Pahari (پہاڑی) is spoken to the north of Pothwari. The central cluster of Pahari dialects is found around Murree.[20] This area is in the Galyat: the hill country of Murree Tehsil in the northeast of Rawalpindi District (just north of the capital Islamabad) and the adjoining areas in southeastern Abbottabad District.[21] One name occasionally found in the literature for this language is Dhundi-Kairali (Ḍhūṇḍī-Kaiṛālī), a term first used by Grierson[22] who based it on the names of the two major tribes of the area – the Kairal and the Dhund.[10] Its speakers call it Pahari in Murree tehsil, while in Abbotabad district it is known as either Hindko or Ḍhūṇḍī.[23] Nevertheless, Hindko – properly the language of the rest of Abbottabad District and the neighbouring areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa – is generally regarded as a different language.[24] It forms a dialect continuum with Pahari, [10] and the transition between the two is in northern Azad Kashmir and in the Galyat region. For example, on the road from Murree northwest towards the city of Abbottabad, Pahari gradually changes into Hindko between Ayubia and Nathiagali.[25]

A closely related dialect is spoken across the Jhelum River in Azad Kashmir, north of the Mirpuri areas. Names associated in the literature with this dialect are Pahari (itself the term most commonly used by the speakers themselves), Chibhālī,[26] named after the Chibhal region[27] or the Chibh ethnic group,[11] and Poonchi (پونچھی, also spelt Punchhi). The latter name has been variously applied to either the Chibhali variety specific to the district of Poonch,[28] or to the dialect of the whole northern half of Azad Kashmir.[29] This dialect (or dialects) has been seen either as a separate dialect from the one in Murree,[22] or as belonging to the same central group of Pahari dialects.[30] The dialect of the district of Bagh, for example, has more shared vocabulary with the core dialects from Murree (86–88%) than with the varieties of either Muzaffarabad (84%) or Mirpur (78%).[31]

In Muzaffarabad the dialect shows lexical similarity[g] of 83–88% with the central group of Pahari dialects, which is high enough for the authors of the sociolinguistic survey to classify it is a central dialect itself, but low enough to warrant noting its borderline status.[32] The speakers however tend to call their language Hindko[33] and to identify more with the Hindko spoken to the west,[34] despite the lower lexical similarity (73–79%) with the core Hindko dialects of Abbottabad and Mansehra.[35] Further north into the Neelam Valley the dialect, now known locally as Parmi, becomes closer to Hindko.[36]

Pahari is also spoken further east across the Line of Control into the Pir Panjal mountains in Indian Jammu and Kashmir. The population, estimated at 1 million,[37] is found in the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers: most significantly in the districts of Poonch and Rajouri, to a lesser extent in neighbouring Baramulla and Kupwara,[38] and also – as a result of the influx of refugees during the Partition of 1947 – scattered throughout the rest of Jammu and Kashmir.[39] Pahari is among the regional languages listed in the sixth schedule of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir.[40] This Pahari is sometimes conflated with the Western Pahari languages spoken in the mountainous region in the south-east of Indian Jammu and Kashmir. These languages, which include Bhadarwahi and its neighbours, are often called "Pahari", but they are not closely related to Pahari–Pothwari.[41]

Phonology

Vowels

Vowels of Pahari
Front Central Back
oral nasal oral nasal oral nasal
Close iː ĩː uː ũː
Near-close ɪ ʊ
Mid e eː ẽː ə o oː
Open æ æː aː ãː
Vowels of Pothwari
Front Central Back
oral nasal oral nasal oral nasal
Close i iː ĩ ĩː u uː ũ ũː
Mid e ẽ ɐ ɐ̃ o õ
Open ɑ ɑ̃

A long diphthong /ɑi/ can be realized as [äː].[42]

Consonants

Consonants of Pahari[43]
Labial Dental Alveolar Post-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop/
Affricate 		voiceless p t̪ t t͡ʃ k
aspirated pʰ t̪ʰ tʰ t͡ʃʰ kʰ
voiced b d̪ d d͡ʒ ɡ
Fricative voiceless f s ʃ x
voiced v z ɣ ɦ
Nasal m n ŋ
Approximant l j
Tap/Trill r ɽ
Consonants of Pothwari[42]
Labial Alveolar Retroflex Palato-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar/
Uvular 		Glottal
Stop voiceless p t ʈ k
aspirated pʰ tʰ ʈʰ kʰ
voiced b d ɖ ɡ
breathy bʱ dʱ ɖʱ ɡʱ
Affricate voiceless t͡s
aspirated t͡sʰ
voiced d͡z
Fricative voiceless (f) s ʃ (χ) h
voiced v z (ʒ) (ʁ)
Nasal m n ɳ
Approximant l ɭ j
Tap/Trill r ɽ
  • Sounds [f, ʒ, χ, ʁ, q] are heard from Persian and Arabic loanwords.
  • /h/ is realized as voiced [ɦ] in word-initial position.
  • /n/ before a velar consonant can be heard as [ŋ].[42]

Comparison with Punjabi

Potohar scenery with hill backdrop

Use of Sī-endings for Future Tense

English Pothwari Punjabi
Transliteration Shahmukhi Gurmukhi Transliteration Shahmukhi Gurmukhi
I will do Mãi karsā̃ مَیں کرساں ਮੈਂ ਕਰਸਾਂ Mãi karāngā مَیں کرانگا ਮੈਂ ਕਰਾਂਗਾ
We will do Asā̃ karsā̃ اَساں کرساں ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਸਾਂ Asī̃ karānge اَسِیں کرانگے ਅਸੀਂ ਕਰਾਂਗੇ
You will do (s) Tū̃ karsãi تُوں کرسَیں ਤੂੰ ਕਰਸੈਂ Tū̃ karengā تُوں کریں گا ਤੂੰ ਕਰੇਂਗਾ
You will do (p) Tusā̃ karso تُساں کرسو ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਸੋ Tusī̃ karoge تُسِیں کروگے ਤੁਸੀਂ ਕਰੋਗੇ
He/She will do Ó karsi اوه کَرسی ਓਹ ਕਰਸੀ Ó karega اوه کرے گا ਓਹ ਕਰੇਗਾ
They will do Ó karsan اوہ کرسن ਓਹ ਕਰਸਨ Ó karaṇge اوه کرݨ گے ਓਹ ਕਰਣਗੇ

Tribal groupings

Pahari-Pothwari speakers belong to the same tribes found in Punjab. While the names of the tribes remain the same, the Punjabi word for tribe Birādrī/Barādarī (برادری) becomes Bilādrī/Balādarī (بل ادری) in Pahari-Pothwari.

Numbering system

Pahari-Pothwari follows the numbering traditions of Punjabi. A clear point of departure from Eastern Punjabi dialects occurs in the use of treah (ترے) instead of tinn (تِن) for the number 3. Western Punjabi as well as Doabi also tend to use treah (ترے) instead of tinn (تِن).

English Pothwari and Punjabi
Numbers Numerals Transliteration Shahmukhi numbers Numerals
One 1 Ikk اِک ۱
Two 2 do دو ۲
Three 3 Treah ترے ۳
Four 4 Char چار ۴
Five 5 Punj پنج ۵
Six 6 Che چھ ۶
Seven 7 Satt ست ۷
Eight 8 Aṭh اَٹھ ۸
Nine 9 Nau نو ۹
Ten 10 Das دس ۱۰

Ordinals

The ordinal numbers are largely the same. The only difference occurs in the words for Second and Third. Second is Doowa (دووا) in Pothwari, whilst it is Dooja (دوجا) in Punjabi. Likewise Third is Treeya (تریا) in Pothwari whilst it is Teeja (تیجا) in Punjabi. Western punjabi in general tends to follow this trend.

English Pothwari Punjabi
Ordinals Shahmukhi Transliteration Shahmukhi Transliteration
First پہلا Pehla پہلا Pehla
Second دووا Dūwā دوجا Dūjā
Third تریا Trīyā تیجا Tījā
Fourth چوتھا Chotha چوتھا Chotha

Object marker

The object marker in Pothwari is kī (ਕੀ /کی) as opposed to nū̃ (ਨੂੰ / نوں) in Punjabi.

For example:

The phrase: lokā̃ kī (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਕੀ / لوکاں کی), meaning "to the people" in Standard Punjabi, would become lokā̃ nū̃ (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨੂੰ / لوکاں نوں).

Genitive marker

The genitive marker in Pothwari is represented through the use of nā (ਨਾ / نا) as opposed to dā (ਦਾ / دا).

For example:

The phrase: lokā̃ dā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਦਾ / لوکاں دا), meaning "people's" or "of the people" in Pothwari, would become lokā̃ nā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨਾ / لوکاں نا).

The word for 'my' becomes māhaṛā (ਮਾਹੜਾ / ماہڑا; m.) instead of māhaṛī (ਮਾਹੜੀ / ماہڑی; f.).

Vocabulary

Very clear point of departure occurs in the use of achṇā (ਅੱਛਣਾ / اچھݨا 'to come') and gachṇā (ਗੱਛਣਾ / گچھݨا 'to go') as opposed to Saraiki āvaṇ (ਆਵਣ / آوݨ) and vañjaṇ (ਵੰਞਣ / وڄݨ), and Punjabi āuṇā (ਆਉਣਾ / آؤݨا) and jāṇā (ਜਾਣਾ / جاݨا).

Notes

  1. ^ Baart (2003, p. 10) provides an estimate of 3.8 million, presumably for the population in Pakistan alone. Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 9) estimate the Pakistani population at well over 2.5 million and the UK diaspora at over 0.5 million. The population in India is reported in Ethnologue (2017) to be about 1 million as of 2000.
  2. ^ There is no consensus among linguists or Pahari-Pothwari speakers in terms of its status as a dialect of Punjabi or a separate language entirely. For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see Shackle (1979) for Punjabi and Masica (1991, pp. 23–27) for Indo-Aryan generally.
  3. ^ According to Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 2). Abbasi (2010, p. 104) adds as a fourth dialect the Poonchi spoken from Poonch to the Neelam Valley. Yet another classification is reportedly presented in Karnai (2007).
  4. ^ For example, according to the 1981 census report for Rawalpindi District, 85.1% of households had Punjabi as mother tongue. In any census, only a small number of major languages have been counted separately, and there has not been a separate option available for either Pahari or Pothwari.
  5. ^ One language activist from the diaspora in Britain "[has] said that he does not give the language a single name because those who speak the language call it many different things." (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
  6. ^ Some, at least in the British diaspora, consider this term to be a misnomer if applied to the language. (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
  7. ^ The similarity between wordlists containing 217 items of basic vocabulary from each location. (Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 15–16)

References

  1. ^ Shackle 1979, pp. 200–201.
  2. ^ Hussain, Qandeel (2020-12-31). "Punjabi (India and Pakistan) – Language Snapshot". 19: 144. doi:10.25894/ldd71. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ^ Masica 1991, p. 440.
  4. ^ a b Shackle 1983, p. 183.
  5. ^ Shackle 1979, p. 201: Pothohari "is often so close to Panjabi that any attempt to maintain the Lahndi scheme ought probably to reckon it as 'Lahndi merging into Panjabi'."
  6. ^ Qayyum, Salma; Qayyum, Samina; Qayyum, Najma (2020-06-30). "Urdu, Punjabi & Pothwari: Striking Similarities & Uniqueness of the Three Indo-Aryan Languages". Global Social Sciences Review. V (II): 427–438. doi:10.31703/gssr.2020(V-II).41.
  7. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 2.
  8. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 86. Speakers from Muzaffarabad "consider the Mirpur dialect different enough that it is difficult to understand."
  9. ^ The alternative English spellings are from Ethnologue (2017).
  10. ^ a b c Abbasi & Asif 2010, p. 201.
  11. ^ a b Grierson 1919, p. 432.
  12. ^ John, Asher (2009). "Two dialects one region : a sociolinguistic approach to dialects as identity markers". CardinalScholar 1.0.
  13. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2–3, 19, 112.
  14. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2012, pp. 12, 26. At least in terms of lexical similarity..
  15. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2–3, 5, 19, 100.
  16. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 44.
  17. ^ Shackle 2007, p. 114.
  18. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 1.
  19. ^ Hussain 2015, pp. 483–84.
  20. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 23.
  21. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 5.
  22. ^ a b Abbasi 2010, p. 104.
  23. ^ Hindko according to Lothers & Lothers (2010, pp. 5, 39) and Dhundi according to Grierson (1919, p. 495). Pahari is reported in both sources.
  24. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 40, 126–27. The speakers of Pahari in Abbottabad District regard the Hindko of the city of Abbottabad as a different language.
  25. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 40.
  26. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 5, 8.
  27. ^ Grierson 1919, p. 505.
  28. ^ Grierson 1919, p. 505 and corresponding map.
  29. ^ Abbasi 2010, p. 104; Abbasi & Asif 2010, pp. 201–202
  30. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, sec. 3.1. The varieties surveyed here are from Bagh and Muzaffarabad.
  31. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 24. The wordlists that form the basis of this comparison are from the variety of Neela Butt.
  32. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 24–25.
  33. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 26, 80.
  34. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 108, 110.
  35. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 24.
  36. ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 26; Akhtar & Rehman 2007, p. 68. The conclusion is similarly based on lexical similarity and the comparison is with the Hindko of the Kaghan Valley on one hand and with the Pahari of the Murre Hills on the other.
  37. ^ A 2000 estimate reported in Ethnologue (2017)
  38. ^ Singh 2014, p. 18; Bhat 2014, ch. 1, pp. 38, 40
  39. ^ Lists of regions and settlements are found in Bhat (2014, ch. 1, pp. 40, 43–44) and Kour (2014).
  40. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2020-04-29.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  41. ^ Kaul 2006, pp. 42, 256–8.
  42. ^ a b c Kogan, Anton I. (2011). Potxoxari Jazyk. Tatiana I. Oranskaya and Yulia V. Mazurova and Andrej A. Kibrik and Leonid I. Kulikov and Aleksandr Y. Rusakov (eds.), Jazyki Mira: Novye Indoarijskie Jazyki: Moskva: Academia. pp. 516–527.
  43. ^ Khan, Abdul Qadir (2013). A Preliminary Study of Pahari Language and its Sound System. pp. 1–20.

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Karnai, Mian Karim Ullah (2007). Pahari aor Urdu: ik taqabali jaiza (in Urdu). Islamabad: National Language Authority.
  • Nazir, Farah (2014). Light Verb Constructions in Potwari (PhD). University of Manchester.
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