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Khmer women are often active in worshipping at [[Buddhist]] temples and participating in religious ceremonies-- particularly during the ''thngai sil'' ({{lang-km|ថ្ងៃសីល}}; [[English language|English]] for "holy days"). Some women not only participate as worshippers, but become [[Buddhist nun]]s ({{lang|km|យាយជី}} {{transl|km|yeay chi}})-- particularly the widowed and the elderly.
Khmer women are often active in worshipping at [[Buddhist]] temples and participating in religious ceremonies-- particularly during the ''thngai sil'' ({{lang-km|ថ្ងៃសីល}}; [[English language|English]] for "holy days"). Some women not only participate as worshippers, but become [[Buddhist nun]]s ({{lang|km|យាយជី}} {{transl|km|yeay chi}})-- particularly the widowed and the elderly.


In recent years, Buddhism has also been examined in conjunction with a feminist school of thought to navigate issues of domestic violence that impact women. In Buddhism as in international law, people must intervene when a man has criminally attacked his wife, despite some alluding to a ‘cultural defense’ of the perpetrator. Recent developments have included the idea of monks carrying out preventative work by educating communities on non-violence using the precepts of morality in the [[dharma]], disabusing culprits of their sense of entitlement and impunity. <ref> https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11013-017-9564-5 </ref>
In recent years, Buddhism has also been examined in conjunction with a feminist school of thought to navigate issues of domestic violence that impact women. In Buddhism as in international law, people must intervene when a man has criminally attacked his wife, despite some alluding to a ‘cultural defense’ of the perpetrator. Recent developments have included the idea of monks carrying out preventative work by educating communities on non-violence using the precepts of morality in the [[dharma]], disabusing culprits of their sense of entitlement and impunity. <ref> Eisenbruch, M. Violence Against Women in Cambodia: Towards a Culturally Responsive Theory of Change. Cult Med Psychiatry 42, 350–370 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-017-9564-5 </ref>
==Education==
==Education==
{{main|Education in Cambodia}}
{{main|Education in Cambodia}}
Line 54: Line 54:


==Reproductive Health==
==Reproductive Health==
Cambodia has taken steps to improve reproductive and sexual health, such as introducing the Birth Spacing Policy in 1995 and the Abortion Law in 1997. However, access to contraception remains limited in rural areas. The Ministry of Health has implemented the National Strategy for Reproductive and Sexual Health (2017-2020) to improve the reproductive and sexual health of the population. However, a 2019 investigation by the World Health Organisation revealed that only one third of Cambodian villages had active distributers of contraceptives, such as birth control pills and condoms.<ref>World Health Organization, IDENTIFYING ACTIONS FOR SCALING UP LONG-ACTING REVERSIBLE CONTRACEPTIVES, 2017. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259992/9789290618218_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y</ref>
Cambodia has taken steps to improve reproductive and sexual health, such as introducing the Birth Spacing Policy in 1995 and the Abortion Law in 1997. However, access to contraception remains limited in rural areas. The Ministry of Health has implemented the National Strategy for Reproductive and Sexual Health (2017-2020) to improve the reproductive and sexual health of the population. However, a 2019 investigation by the World Health Organisation revealed that only one third of Cambodian villages had active distributers of contraceptives, such as birth control pills and condoms.<ref>World Health Organization, IDENTIFYING ACTIONS FOR SCALING UP LONG-ACTING REVERSIBLE CONTRACEPTIVES, 2017. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259992/9789290618218_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y </ref>


==Domestic violence==
==Domestic violence and Assault==
{{See|Violence against women in Cambodia}}
{{See|Violence against women in Cambodia}}
Especially in rural communities, Cambodian women are not only susceptible to domestic violence, but also have "little legal recourse".
Especially in rural communities, Cambodian women are not only susceptible to domestic violence, but also have "little legal recourse".
Line 62: Line 62:


In 2004, Gender and Development for Cambodia reported that "23% of women have suffered physical domestic abuse".<ref name="OC"/>
In 2004, Gender and Development for Cambodia reported that "23% of women have suffered physical domestic abuse".<ref name="OC"/>
A 2013 survey found that 32.8% of men reported perpetrating physical and/or sexual violence against an intimate partner, and one in five men reported raping a woman or girl. Government rhetoric often blames alcohol and poverty, but local activists argue that this approach is not effective. <ref>Eisenbruch M. The Cultural Epigenesis of Gender-Based Violence in Cambodia: Local and Buddhist Perspectives. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;42(2):315-349. doi: 10.1007/s11013-017-9563-6. PMID: 29340954; PMCID: PMC5976692. </ref>Attempts to address gender-based violence have been complicated by the effects of globalization, including economic development resulting in women flocking to the cities in search of work, which activists state has caused more economic abuse and violence. Simultaneously, the heightened awareness due to global women’s rights movements has made the movement to counter gender-based violence more widespread in Cambodian society, and the world as a whole. <ref> Fulu, E., & Miedema, S. (2015). Violence Against Women: Globalizing the Integrated Ecological Model. Violence Against Women, 21(12), 1431–1455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215596244 </ref>

There are also issues with legislation related to preventing assault. The Cambodian Criminal Code (2010) defines rape restrictively and incompletely, and while marital rape was outlawed in 2005, some Members of Parliament argued that sexual intercourse is an obligation in a marriage. Local activists argue for transformation of patriarchal norms and an emphasis on championing women's rights without locating gender-based violence in an unchanging culture. They argue that this creates untrue stereotypes of Khmer culture-- gender-based violence is rooted in patriarchal norms, and should not be presented as an unchangeable cultural norm. <ref> Eisenbruch M. The Cultural Epigenesis of Gender-Based Violence in Cambodia: Local and Buddhist Perspectives. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;42(2):315-349. doi: 10.1007/s11013-017-9563-6. PMID: 29340954; PMCID: PMC5976692. </ref>The National Action Plans to Prevent Violence Against Women (2014-2018 and 2019-2023) have tried to combine approaches, including analyzing norms among men and educating people to stop using a "cultural defense" of the perpetrator perpetuated by men. However, patriarchal views on marriage remain prevalent, hampering the implementation of legal protections for women, especially those in rural areas and members of the LGBTQIA+ community.



==Social status==
==Social status==

Revision as of 17:25, 21 April 2023

Women in Cambodia
A Khmer woman in traditional outfit
General Statistics
Maternal mortality (per 100,000)250 (2010)
Women in parliament18.1% (2012)
Women over 25 with secondary education11.6% (2010)
Women in labour force79.2% (2011)
Gender Inequality Index[1]
Value0.461 (2021)
Rank116th out of 191
Global Gender Gap Index[2]
Value0.690 (2022)
Rank98th out of 146
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Women in Cambodia, due to the influence of the dominant Khmer culture, are traditionally expected to be modest and soft-spoken. They are to be well-mannered, [3] industrious, [4] and hold a sense of belonging to the household. It is expected that they act as the family's caregivers and caretakers, [3] financial administrators, [4] and serve as the "preserver of the home". As financial administrators, women can be identified as having household authority at the familial level. [5] Khmer women are expected to maintain virginity until marriage, become faithful wives, [3] and act as advisors to their husbands. [4] Women in Cambodia have also be known as “light” walkers-- "light" walking and refinement of the Khmer women is further described as being "quiet in […] movements that one cannot hear the sound of their silk skirt rustling".[4]

In recent years, women have become more active in the traditionally male-dominated spheres of work and politics in Cambodia.

Work

Cambodian woman

In the wake of the Cambodian Civil War, Cambodia suffered a deficit in male laborers. As a result, the women took on the responsibilities previously done by men. [4] Under Cambodian law, women are entitled to "equal pay for equal work". However, in reality, most women receive lower wages than their male counterparts. [4] During the 1990s, many "uneducated young women" from rural areas ventured into the city to work in garment factories.[4]

In 2004, the organization, Gender and Development for Cambodia, stated that 6% of the female workforce in Cambodia is paid.[6]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Cambodia
A Buddhist nun in Cambodia.

Khmer women are often active in worshipping at Buddhist temples and participating in religious ceremonies-- particularly during the thngai sil (Template:Lang-km; English for "holy days"). Some women not only participate as worshippers, but become Buddhist nuns (យាយជី yeay chi)-- particularly the widowed and the elderly.

In recent years, Buddhism has also been examined in conjunction with a feminist school of thought to navigate issues of domestic violence that impact women. In Buddhism as in international law, people must intervene when a man has criminally attacked his wife, despite some alluding to a ‘cultural defense’ of the perpetrator. Recent developments have included the idea of monks carrying out preventative work by educating communities on non-violence using the precepts of morality in the dharma, disabusing culprits of their sense of entitlement and impunity. [7]

Education

Main article: Education in Cambodia

13.8% of Cambodian women were reported as being illiterate in 2019. In 2004, it was reported that only 16% of the girls in Cambodia were enrolled in lower secondary schools. [6] Girls in Cambodia lack access to education due to gender role expectations and other socio-economic realities. Girls in Cambodia are needed at home to take care of younger siblings, perform household duties, and support the head of the home. Other factors include extreme poverty, the distance between home and school, as well as an ever-present fear for personal safety while traveling alone. [4]

However, despite these low statistics, there is a growing number of women present in Cambodia's universities. As of 2004, 20% of university graduates were women.[6]

Funded by Google.org, the philanthropic arm of Google, SHE Investments and Youth Business International (YBI) created an initiative to help underserved female business owners recover from the Covid-19 pandemic. Through this program, women learn about digital literacy, crisis management, financial management, and business model adaption. As of September 2021, 94 out of 97 women graduated and said they would recommend the program to others. In addition, 78 businesses remained operational at the end of the program. Monthly revenue of the participants increased by 169 percent. A total of 584 jobs were either retained, re-hired, or newly created.[8]

Political status

From the 1980s to present day, the number of female participants in Cambodian politics has remained low. They are under-represented in high-level positions at both the local and national levels of the government. [4] Since 1993 there has been a modest rise in the participation of Cambodian women including leadership in non-governmental organizations focusing on the issues and rights of women.[4]

It was reported in 2004 that 10% of National Assembly members, 8% of Commune Council members, and 7% of Cambodian judges were women.[6]

Throughout the nation’s history and within national legislation, men and women in Cambodia have always had equal rights. [4] This equality is also stated in the Constitution of Cambodia.[4] Cambodian women benefit from inheritance laws. These laws mean that they can own property, "bring property into a marriage", and claim the property as their own if they choose to do so. Women in Cambodia can also easily obtain a divorce. [4] In 2005, Cambodia outlawed marital rape.[9]

Prostitution

Further information: Prostitution in Cambodia

Prostitution in Cambodia encompasses local women, [4] women from Vietnam, [10] and is being linked to the sex trade in nearby Thailand. As a result of this wide-spread prostitution, approximately 2.8% of Cambodia's population are infected with HIV/AIDS.[4]

Sex trafficking

Main article: Sex trafficking in Cambodia

Women and girls in Cambodia are trafficked both domestically and throughout the world.[11] In many cases, they are threatened and forced into prostitution, marriages, and even pregnancies.[12]

Reproductive Health

Cambodia has taken steps to improve reproductive and sexual health, such as introducing the Birth Spacing Policy in 1995 and the Abortion Law in 1997. However, access to contraception remains limited in rural areas. The Ministry of Health has implemented the National Strategy for Reproductive and Sexual Health (2017-2020) to improve the reproductive and sexual health of the population. However, a 2019 investigation by the World Health Organisation revealed that only one third of Cambodian villages had active distributers of contraceptives, such as birth control pills and condoms.[13]

Domestic violence and Assault

Further information: Violence against women in Cambodia

Especially in rural communities, Cambodian women are not only susceptible to domestic violence, but also have "little legal recourse". [5] Due to limited education, many Cambodian women are unable to protect themselves from discrimination, gender inequality, violence, and abuse. They live unaware of their legal rights and/or global human rights standards.[6]

In 2004, Gender and Development for Cambodia reported that "23% of women have suffered physical domestic abuse".[6] A 2013 survey found that 32.8% of men reported perpetrating physical and/or sexual violence against an intimate partner, and one in five men reported raping a woman or girl. Government rhetoric often blames alcohol and poverty, but local activists argue that this approach is not effective. [14]Attempts to address gender-based violence have been complicated by the effects of globalization, including economic development resulting in women flocking to the cities in search of work, which activists state has caused more economic abuse and violence. Simultaneously, the heightened awareness due to global women’s rights movements has made the movement to counter gender-based violence more widespread in Cambodian society, and the world as a whole. [15]

There are also issues with legislation related to preventing assault. The Cambodian Criminal Code (2010) defines rape restrictively and incompletely, and while marital rape was outlawed in 2005, some Members of Parliament argued that sexual intercourse is an obligation in a marriage. Local activists argue for transformation of patriarchal norms and an emphasis on championing women's rights without locating gender-based violence in an unchanging culture. They argue that this creates untrue stereotypes of Khmer culture-- gender-based violence is rooted in patriarchal norms, and should not be presented as an unchangeable cultural norm. [16]The National Action Plans to Prevent Violence Against Women (2014-2018 and 2019-2023) have tried to combine approaches, including analyzing norms among men and educating people to stop using a "cultural defense" of the perpetrator perpetuated by men. However, patriarchal views on marriage remain prevalent, hampering the implementation of legal protections for women, especially those in rural areas and members of the LGBTQIA+ community.


Social status

A young Cambodian waitress waiting on customers.

Of late, there has been much discussion over the roles of Cambodian women in the society of today. What Cambodian tradition tell us about their daily roles is being revisited. In order to reach gender equity, gender norms need to reflect the present era in regard to leadership roles. Some would say that elevating a woman’s worth from the traditional representations of women in Khmer culture and stating that a woman isn’t second to a man,[17] would help to make Cambodian women their own agents.

In recent years, young women in Cambodia have been influenced by Western ideas which are contrary to traditional Cambodian culture. One example, found particularly in the capital of Phnom Penh, is that young female Cambodians are overtly consuming liquors and other alcoholic beverages in restaurants. Other areas in which Western influence is detected include a sense of equal rights between men and women, peer pressure, companionship, experimentation, trouble within the family, abandonment by a boyfriend, and through advertising.[18]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  2. ^ "Global Gender Gap Report 2022" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
  3. ^ a b c Chey, Elizabeth. The Status of Khmer Women, Mekong.net
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o The Status of Women in Society, seasite.niu.edu
  5. ^ a b Gender Roles and Statuses, everyculture.com
  6. ^ a b c d e f The Status of Women in Cambodia, Gender and Development for Cambodia, online.com.kh
  7. ^ Eisenbruch, M. Violence Against Women in Cambodia: Towards a Culturally Responsive Theory of Change. Cult Med Psychiatry 42, 350–370 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-017-9564-5
  8. ^ "Results just released of teaching digital literacy to female workers - Khmer Times". 2021-09-20. Retrieved 2021-09-26.
  9. ^ UN Committee Against Torture (CAT) (20 January 2011). "Concluding observations of the Committee against Torture: Cambodia". CAT/C/KHM/CO/2. Retrieved 8 March 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  10. ^ Cambodia, Factbook on Global Sexual Exploitation, uri.edu
  11. ^ "Cambodia UN ACT". UN ACT.
  12. ^ "Inside the world of Cambodia's child sex trade, as told through the eyes of a survivor". ABC News. March 8, 2017.
  13. ^ World Health Organization, IDENTIFYING ACTIONS FOR SCALING UP LONG-ACTING REVERSIBLE CONTRACEPTIVES, 2017. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/259992/9789290618218_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  14. ^ Eisenbruch M. The Cultural Epigenesis of Gender-Based Violence in Cambodia: Local and Buddhist Perspectives. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;42(2):315-349. doi: 10.1007/s11013-017-9563-6. PMID: 29340954; PMCID: PMC5976692.
  15. ^ Fulu, E., & Miedema, S. (2015). Violence Against Women: Globalizing the Integrated Ecological Model. Violence Against Women, 21(12), 1431–1455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215596244
  16. ^ Eisenbruch M. The Cultural Epigenesis of Gender-Based Violence in Cambodia: Local and Buddhist Perspectives. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;42(2):315-349. doi: 10.1007/s11013-017-9563-6. PMID: 29340954; PMCID: PMC5976692.
  17. ^ Hill, Peter S; Ly, Heng Thay (2004-01-01). "Women are Silver, Women are Diamonds: Conflicting Images of Women in the Cambodian Print Media". Reproductive Health Matters. 12 (24): 104–115. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(04)24148-9. ISSN 0968-8080. PMID 15626201. S2CID 25613459.
  18. ^ Women in Cambodia are increasingly becoming social drinkers. Phnom Penh Post. April 6, 2011.

Further reading

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