Oceanography

Thermohaline circulation

Oceanography (from Ocean + Greek γράφειν = write), also called oceanology or marine science, is the branch of Earth Sciences that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. Oceanographers study a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics. Yzzitcopter

Branches

The study of oceanography may be divided into a number of branches:

• Marine biology or biological oceanography, the study of the plants, animals and microbes (biota) of the oceans and their ecological interaction;
• Chemical oceanography or marine chemistry, the study of the chemistry of the ocean and its chemical interaction with the atmosphere;
• Marine geology or geological oceanography, the study of the geology of the ocean floor including plate tectonics;
• Physical oceanography studies the ocean's physical attributes including temperature-salinity structure, mixing, waves, tides and currents;
• Marine engineering involves the design and building of oil platforms, ships, harbors, and other structures that allow us to use the ocean wisely.

These branches reflect the fact that many oceanographers are first trained in the exact sciences or mathematics and then focus on applying their interdisciplinary knowledge, skills and abilities to oceanography.

History

Ocean currents (1911)

Early exploration of the oceans was limited to its surfaces and the few creatures that fishermen brought up in nets, but when Bougainville and Cook carried out their explorations in the South Pacific, the seas themselves formed part of the reports.

James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks about currents in the Atlantic and Indian oceans during the late 18th and at the beginning of 19th century. Sir James Clark Ross took the first modern sounding in deep sea in 1840, and Charles Darwin published a paper on reefs and the formation of atolls.

The steep slope beyond the continental shelves was not discovered until 1849. Matthew Fontaine Maury's Physical Geography of the Sea, 1855 was the first textbook of oceanography. The first successful laying of Transatlantic telegraph cable in August 1858 confirmed the presence of an underwater "telegraphic plateau" mid-ocean ridge.

After the middle of the 19th century, scientific societies were processing a flood of new terrestrial botanical and zoological information. European natural historians began to sense the lack of more than anecdotal knowledge of the oceans.

Oceanography began as a quantifiable science in 1872, when the Scots Charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition (1872–1876). Other European and American nations also sent out scientific expeditions (as did private individuals and institutions). The four-month 1910 North Atlantic expedition headed by Sir John Murray and Johan Hjort was at that time the most ambitious research oceanographic and marine zoological project ever, and led to the classic 1912 book The Depths of the Ocean.

Oceanographic institutes dedicated to the study of oceanography were founded. In the United States, these included the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University, and the School of Oceanography at University of Washington. In Britain, there is a major research institution: National Oceanography Centre, Southampton. In Australia, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, known as CMAR, is a leading center.

The first international organization of oceanography was created in 1902 as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.

In 1921 Monaco formed the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB). Then in 1966, the U.S. Congress created a National Council for Marine Resources and Engineering Development. NOAA was in charge of exploring and studying all aspects of Oceanography. It also enabled the National Science Foundation to award Sea Grant College funding to multi-disciplinary researchers in the field of oceanography.

Ocean and atmosphere connections of sex

The study of the oceans is intimately linked to understanding global warming and related biosphere concerns.

Our planet is invested with two great oceans; one visible, the other invisible; one underfoot, the other overhead; one entirely envelopes it, the other covers about two thirds of its surface.

— Matthew F. Maury (1855) The Physical Geography of the Seas and Its Meteorology

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Notable oceanographers

• Robert Ballard
• W. W. Behrens, Jr.
• Henry Bryant Bigelow
• Richard E. Byrd
• Jacques Cousteau
• Robert S. Dietz
• V. Walfrid Ekman
• Gotthilf Hempel
• Johan Hjort
• Charles David Keeling
• Matthew Fontaine Maury
• Ramón Margalef
• Albert I, Prince of Monaco
• Walter Munk
• John Murray
• Stefan Rahmstorf
• Yuly Shokalsky
• Henry Stommel
• Harald Sverdrup
• Mary Sears
• Charles Wilkes
• Hamed Gohar

Major oceanographic institutions and programs

International

• Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (NGO)
• Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS)
• American Geophysical Union
• The Oceanography Society

Brazil

• São Paulo University Institute of Oceanography

Canada

• Bedford Institute of Oceanography
• St. Lawrence Observatory (OSL)

Finland

• The Finnish Institute of Marine Research

France

• IFREMER - French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea
• Station biologique de Roscoff

Germany

• Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven
• IfM-GEOMAR, Kiel
• MARUM/RCOM, Bremen

India

• National Institute of Oceanography, Goa

Mexico

• Association of Oceanologists of Mexico ASOCEAN
• Marine Science Journal IIO-UABC
• Oceanology Research Institute IIO-UABC
• Marine Science School FCM-UABC
• Marine Science School FCM-UCOL
• Oceanology Division CICESE
• Department of Biological Oceanography CICESE
• Department of Physical Oceanography CICESE
• Marine Science and Limnology Institute UNAM
• Mexican Departmant of Oceanography SM-AM
• Interdisciplinary Center of Marine Science CICIMAR-IPN
• University of Sea UMAR

U.K.

• Plymouth Marine Laboratory
• Southampton Oceanography Centre

USA

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
• Scripps Institution of Oceanography
• Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
• Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
• Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island

See also

• Anoxic event - Anoxic sea water
• Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center
• Freak wave
• List of Oceanic basins
• Oceans Act of 2000
• Ocean colonization
• Oceanographic Museum - Monaco
• Sea level
• Sea level rise

Related disciplines

• Biogeochemistry
• Biogeography
• Hydrography
• Hydrology
• Limnology
• Meteorology

External links

• Ocean Explorer - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration.
• NOAA, Ocean Explorer History
• NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery - A rich collection of images, video, audio and podcast.
• NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration
• NOAA Ocean and Weather Data Navigator - Plot and download ocean data
• Exploring Marine Ecosystems - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History permanent exhibit
• Freeview Video 'Voyage to the Bottom of the Deep Deep Sea' Oceanography Programme - Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU
• NEMO: Modeling framework for Oceanography
• Oceanographycal and Hidrobiological manuscripts The Turkish Seas
• Ocean Alliance: Conservation Biology
• Matthias Tomczak's oceanography teaching site (Open source studying material)
• Ocean World (Open source textbook)
• SeaDiscovery - Marine Technology Reporter (technology science and engineering)
• Oceanographers Net, Online portal for the Oceanographic community
• Pew Institute fo Ocean Science - Protecting the world's oceans and the species that inhabit them.
• Herdman, William A. - Founders of Oceanography, and their work - An introduction to the science of the sea
• The National Office for Integrated and Sustained Ocean Observation
• Timeline of Oceanography
• WMO: Tropical Meteorology Research Programme
• Ocean Motion and Surface Currents (NASA)
• British Oceanographic Data Centre - a source of oceanographic data and information

Further reading

Steele, J., K. Turekian and S. Thorpe. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences. San Diego: Academic Press. (6 vols.) ISBN 0-12-227430-X