User:Daniel Couto Vale/sandbox/Latin verb classes

In linguistics, inflecting a verb (a.k.a. conjugating a verb) is the act of composing a verb with verb parts. Usually, an inflection is selected according to grammatical features from different systems (e.g. mood, tense, voice, person, gender, number) and lexical features (e.g. transitive, intransitive, intransitive deponent).

Inflections

Verbs can be organised in two dimensions: a lexical and a grammatical. Lexically, a verb is a vocabulary item. The item putō (I think) opposes the items videō, (I see) and audiō (I hear) because they represent different mental processes, one of cognition and the other two of perception. Grammatically, a verb is an inflection which is realised by selecting and ordering verb parts and which carries a bundle of grammatical features. For instance, the verb putō (I think) opposes the verbs putās (you think) and putat (he/she thinks) in person, which is one of the dimensions in which inflections oppose one another.

In the table below, there are 42 verbs organized as 6 lexical items and 7 inflections.

Lexical items vs inflections

Inflections		putō, putāre	videō, vidēre	audiō, audīre	capiō, capere	statuō, statuere	dīcō, dīcere
indicative present active	1st person singular	put ō	vide ō	audi ō	capi ō	statu ō	dīc ō
indicative present active	2nd person singular	putā s	vidē s	audī s	capi s	statui s	dīci s
indicative present active	3rd person singular	puta t	vide t	audi t	capi t	statui t	dīci t
indicative present active	1st person plural	putā mus	vidē mus	audī mus	capi mus	statui mus	dīci mus
indicative present active	2nd person plural	putā tis	vidē tis	audī tis	capi tis	statui tis	dīci tis
indicative present active	3rd person plural	puta nt	vide nt	audi unt	capi unt	statu ont	dīc unt
infinitive active	—	putā re	vidē re	audī re	cape re	statue re	dīce re

Inflectional classes

The same inflection is realised in different ways for different lexical items: for instance, when realising a 3rd-person plural inflection for different vocabulary items, the nt ending in putant (they think) is selected for putō putāre (think) and the unt ending in dīcunt (they say) is selected for dīcō dīcere (say). This means that different lexical items belong to different inflectional classes, that is, different classes when it comes to inflecting a verb.

Īnfectum classes

In Early Latin (e.g. Plautus) and to some extent in Early Classical Latin (e.g. Varro and Lucretius), there used to be six classes of verbal items, roughly corresponding to the six aspectual vowels of the īnfectum inflections: (1) putō, putāre, (2) videō, vidēre, (3) audiō, audīre, (4) capiō, capere, (5) statuō, statuere, (5) relinquō, relinquere, (6) dīcō, dīcere (ā, ē, ī, i, u/v, ø). Here ø stands for no aspectual vowel at the end of the īnfectum stem. However, for most of the Classical Period, vocabulary items belonged to one of five classes for īnfectum inflections: (1) putō, putāre, (2) videō, vidēre, (3) audiō, audīre, (4) capiō, capere, (5) statuō, statuere, (5) relinquō, relinquere, (5) dīcō, dīcere (ā, ē, ī, i, u/v/ø), whereby verbs with stems ending in u/v/ø were inflected in the same way. Despite this fact, the number of inflectional classes has been historically said to be 3, then 4, which means either two, three or four conjugations used to be subsumed under the same conjugation name (see number of Latin conjugations).

1. ā conjugation
2. ē conjugation
3. ī conjugation.
4. i conjugation
5. u/v/ø conjugation

One method to determine the inflectional class of a verb in Classical Latin is to identify the aspectual vowel of verbs in two inflections: the 'indicative present active first person' and the 'infinitive active'. These two inflections are presented in modern dictionaries as principal parts.

5 īnfectum classes in Classical Latin

Inflection	ā	ē	ī	i	u/v/ø
indicative present active 1st person singular	put ō	vide ō	audi ō	capi ō	statu ō	relinqu ō	dīc ō
infinitive present active	putā re	vidē re	audī re	cape re	statue re	relinque re	dīce re

In Early Latin, the u/v conjunction differed from the ø conjunction in a single inflection: namely the 'indicative present active third person plural'. Below you can see how the inflection evolved, merging two inflectional classes into one.

Inflection in Early Latin and Early Classical Latin

Inflection	ā	ē	ī	i	u/v		ø
indicative present active 3rd person plural	puta nt	vide nt	audi unt	capi unt	statu ont	relinqu ont	dīc unt

Inflection in Classical Latin

Inflection	ā	ē	ī	i	u/v/ø
indicative present active 3rd person plural	puta nt	vide nt	audi unt	capi unt	statu unt	relinqu unt	dīc unt

Perfectum classes

In Classical Latin, verbal items belong to one of three classes for perfectum inflections: (1) putāvī, (2) dīxī, (3) cēpī.

1. Latin v syncopy
2. Latin s syncopy
3. Latin no syncopy

One can easily determine the perfectum class for the vocabulary item by attending to the penultimate sound in the 'indicative perfect 1st person singular' inflection. When determining the perfectum class, one must consider that 'x' was not a letter, but a ligature corresponding to 'c' + 's'.

3 perfectum classes in Classical Latin

Inflection	v	s	u/ø
indicative perfect 1st person singular	putāv ī	dīcs ī	monu ī	cēp ī

Supine classes

Finally, each lexical item belongs to one of three classes for supine inflections: (1) mortuus, moritūrus, (2) ortus, oritūrus, (3) putātus, putātūrus:

1. Latin u removal and i insertion
2. Latin no removal and i insertion
3. Latin no change

Inflectional features

Grammatical features (e.g. mood, tense, voice, person, gender, number) are often realised by inflectional features: for instance, the ō ending is selected for sayer, the s ending for the addressee and the t ending for another person. However, the relation between grammatical and inflectional features is not one-to-one. On the one hand, the same inflectional feature can carry different grammatical features: for instance, the t ending in putat (thinks) is selected according to the speech role of the thinker while the same ending in pluit (it rains) is selected irrespectively of speech roles. On the other hand, the same bundle of grammatical features can be carried by different inflectional features: for instance, both videō (see) and mīror (see) are active verbs, despite the fact that one ends in ō and the other in or.

Voice system

Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is a verb that comes with a subject and an object. In processes of making someone something, the subject takes either the role of actor or that of goal and the object takes the other role. In many grammar books, a prepositioned object such as ā populō "by the people" is called 'adjunct'.

• [Mānī Valeriī], quī prīmus magister ā populō creātus est
  "Manus Valerius, who was the first one who was made master by the people"

• [ille] creāvit cōnsulēs M. Valerium Messālam et C. Livium Salinātōrem
  "he made M. Valerius Messala and C. Livius Salinator consuls"

Lexical features	Inflectional features	1	2	3	Grammatical Features	Mapping	Meaing
transitive	ō endings	creō	creās	creat	transitive active	actor = nominative goal = accusative attribute = accusative	create something
	ī ending	creāvī	creāstī	creāvit
	or endings	creor	creāris	creātur	transitive passive	actor = ab + ablative goal = nominative attribute = nominative	be created by someone
	sum auxiliary	creātus sum	creātus es	creātus est

Active and passive verbs

• aut id, quod fit ab eō, quī facit
  "or that which is made by the one who makes it"

Lexical features	Inflectional features	Grammatical Features	Mapping	1	2	3	Meaing
transitive active	ō endings	transitive active	actor = nominative goal = accusative	faciō	facis	facit	create something
transitive passive	ō endings	transitive passive	actor = ab + ablative goal = nominative	fiō	fīs	fit	be created by someone

Intransitive verbs

• Quam follēs taurīnī habent, cum liquēscunt pētrae, ferrum ubī fit.
  "How fool are the young bulls when stones liquify where iron is made!"

• Līmus ut hic dūrēscit et haec ut cera liquēscit.
  "Clay hardens like this and this liquifies like wax."

Lexical features	Inflectional features	Grammatical Features	Mapping	1	2	3	Meaing

Deponent verbs

• quam [illa] Talaum videt aut pugnās mīrātur Acastī.
  "than she observes Talaus or admires Acastus' wars"

Lexical features	Inflectional features	Grammatical Features	Mapping	1	2	3	Meaing
transitive active indeponent	ō endings	transitive active	viewer = nominative viewed = accusative	videō	vidēs	videt	see[s] something
transitive active deponent	or endings	transitive active	viewer = nominative viewed = accusative	mīror	mīrāris	mīrātur	see[s] something

Ergative verbs

Lexical features	Inflectional features	Grammatical Features	Mapping	1	2	3	Meaing
transitive	ō endings	transitive active	mover = nominative moved = accusative	dūcō	dūcis	dūcit	take
	or endings	transitive passive	mover = ab + ablative moved = nominative	dūcor	dūceris	dūcitur	be taken by someone
intransitive indeponent	ō endings	intransitive	mover/ed = nominative	eō	īs	it	go
ergative	ō endings	transitive active	mover = nominative moved = accusative	moveō	movēs	movet	move something
	or endings	transitive passive	mover = ab + ablative moved = nominative	moveor	movēris	movētur	be moved by someone
	or endings	intransitive	mover/ed = nominative	moveor	movēris	movētur	move