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| partof = the '''[[Tornadoes of 1964|tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1964]]'''
| partof = the '''[[Tornadoes of 1964|tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1964]]'''
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On October&nbsp;3–4, 1964, [[Hurricane Hilda]] and its remnants generated a [[tornado outbreak]] over portions of the Southeastern United States. The outbreak, which yielded at least 12&nbsp;confirmed [[tornado]]es, killed 22&nbsp;people and injured 175&nbsp;others. Most of the casualties occurred as a result of a [[Fujita scale#Rating classifications|violent]] tornado that devastated the northern outskirts of [[Larose, Louisiana]], becoming the deadliest [[Tropical cyclone#Nomenclature and intensity classifications|hurricane]]-[[List of tornadoes spawned by tropical cyclones#1950–1979|generated]] tornado on record since 1900 and one of only two violet tornadoes (F4+) recorded in the southern Gulf Coast region of Louisiana. The tornado was also one&nbsp;of only two F4s known to have been produced by a tropical cyclone, the [[Hurricane Carla tornado outbreak|other]] having occurred during [[Hurricane Carla]] on September&nbsp;12, [[1961 Atlantic hurricane season|1961]].{{sfn|Edwards|2012|p=2}}<ref name=Agnes>{{cite conference |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016213739/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mlb/PDFs/agnes30.pdf |archive-date=October 16, 2008 |url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mlb/PDFs/agnes30.pdf |title=Thirty Years After Hurricane Agnes: the Forgotten Florida Tornado Disaster |last1=Hagemeyer |first1=Bartlett C. |last2=Spratt |first2=Scott M. |year=2002 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |location=Melbourne, Florida |publication-place=San Diego, California|conference=25th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology |conference-url=https://ams.confex.com/ams/25HURR/webprogram/25HURR.html }}</ref><ref name="DeadliestUSTOR">{{cite web |last1=Grazulis |first1=Thomas P. |last2=Grazulis |first2=Doris |title=The United States' Worst Tornadoes |url=http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm |website=The Tornado Project |publisher=Environmental Films |access-date=August 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514002740/http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm |archive-date=May 14, 2008 |location=[[St. Johnsbury, Vermont]] |date=April 26, 2000}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|name=Outbreak|An [[tornado outbreak|outbreak]] is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An [[tornado outbreak sequence|outbreak sequence]], prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one [[Fujita scale#Rating classifications|significant]] (F2 or stronger) tornado.<ref name=OutbreakClimo>{{cite conference |url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/schneider/otbrkseq.pdf |title=Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) |last1=Schneider |first1=Russell S. |last2=Brooks |first2=Harold E. |last3=Schaefer |first3=Joseph T. |author-link2=Harold E. Brooks |year=2004 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |location=Hyannis, Massachusetts |conference=22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms |conference-url=https://ams.confex.com/ams/11aram22sls/techprogram/programexpanded_230.htm |access-date=September 17, 2019}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|name=Fujita|The [[Fujita scale]] was devised under the aegis of scientist [[Ted Fujita|T. Theodore Fujita]] in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.{{sfn|Grazulis|1993|p=141}}{{sfn|Grazulis|2001a|p=[https://archive.org/details/tornadonaturesul0000graz/page/131 131]}} While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the [[Enhanced Fujita scale]] in the U.S. since February&nbsp;1, 2007,<ref name="EFscale">{{cite web|last1=Edwards|first1=Roger|title=Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage|url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ef-scale.html|website=The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)|publisher=Storm Prediction Center|access-date=February 25, 2016|date=March 5, 2015}}</ref> Canada used the old scale until April&nbsp;1, 2013;<ref name="FscaleCanada">{{cite web |title=Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale) |url=https://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=41E875DA-1 |website=Environment and Climate Change Canada |access-date=February 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220706/http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=41E875DA-1 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |date=June 6, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the [[TORRO scale]].<ref name="TORROscale">{{cite web|title=The International Tornado Intensity Scale |url=http://www.torro.org.uk/tscale.php |website=Tornado and Storm Research Organisation |access-date=February 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305120332/http://www.torro.org.uk/tscale.php |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |year=2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|name=Count|Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.{{sfn|Grazulis|2001a|pp=251–4}} Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.<ref name="TornadoClimaFAQ">{{cite web|last1=Edwards|first1=Roger|title=The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)|url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/#Climatology|website=Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes|publisher=[[Storm Prediction Center]]|access-date=February 25, 2016|date=March 5, 2015}}</ref> Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced [[NEXRAD]] was first installed and the [[National Weather Service]] began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.<ref name="CookSchaefer">{{harvnb|Cook|Schaefer|2008|p=3135}}</ref>}}
On October&nbsp;3–4, 1964, [[Hurricane Hilda]] and its remnants generated a [[tornado outbreak]] over portions of the Southeastern United States. The outbreak, which yielded at least 12&nbsp;confirmed [[tornado]]es, killed 22&nbsp;people and injured 175&nbsp;others. Most of the casualties occurred as a result of a [[Fujita scale#Rating classifications|violent]] tornado that devastated the northern outskirts of [[Larose, Louisiana]], becoming the deadliest [[Tropical cyclone#Nomenclature and intensity classifications|hurricane]]-[[List of tornadoes spawned by tropical cyclones#1950–1979|generated]] tornado on record since 1900 and one of only two violent tornadoes (F4+) recorded in the southern Gulf Coast region of Louisiana. The tornado was also one&nbsp;of only two F4s known to have been produced by a tropical cyclone, the [[Hurricane Carla tornado outbreak|other]] having occurred during [[Hurricane Carla]] on September&nbsp;12, [[1961 Atlantic hurricane season|1961]].{{sfn|Edwards|2012|p=2}}<ref name=Agnes>{{cite conference |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016213739/http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mlb/PDFs/agnes30.pdf |archive-date=October 16, 2008 |url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mlb/PDFs/agnes30.pdf |title=Thirty Years After Hurricane Agnes: the Forgotten Florida Tornado Disaster |last1=Hagemeyer |first1=Bartlett C. |last2=Spratt |first2=Scott M. |year=2002 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |location=Melbourne, Florida |publication-place=San Diego, California|conference=25th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology |conference-url=https://ams.confex.com/ams/25HURR/webprogram/25HURR.html }}</ref><ref name="DeadliestUSTOR">{{cite web |last1=Grazulis |first1=Thomas P. |last2=Grazulis |first2=Doris |title=The United States' Worst Tornadoes |url=http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm |website=The Tornado Project |publisher=Environmental Films |access-date=August 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514002740/http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/worstts.htm |archive-date=May 14, 2008 |location=[[St. Johnsbury, Vermont]] |date=April 26, 2000}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|name=Outbreak|An [[tornado outbreak|outbreak]] is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An [[tornado outbreak sequence|outbreak sequence]], prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one [[Fujita scale#Rating classifications|significant]] (F2 or stronger) tornado.<ref name=OutbreakClimo>{{cite conference |url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/schneider/otbrkseq.pdf |title=Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) |last1=Schneider |first1=Russell S. |last2=Brooks |first2=Harold E. |last3=Schaefer |first3=Joseph T. |author-link2=Harold E. Brooks |year=2004 |publisher=[[American Meteorological Society]] |location=Hyannis, Massachusetts |conference=22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms |conference-url=https://ams.confex.com/ams/11aram22sls/techprogram/programexpanded_230.htm |access-date=September 17, 2019}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|name=Fujita|The [[Fujita scale]] was devised under the aegis of scientist [[Ted Fujita|T. Theodore Fujita]] in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.{{sfn|Grazulis|1993|p=141}}{{sfn|Grazulis|2001a|p=[https://archive.org/details/tornadonaturesul0000graz/page/131 131]}} While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the [[Enhanced Fujita scale]] in the U.S. since February&nbsp;1, 2007,<ref name="EFscale">{{cite web|last1=Edwards|first1=Roger|title=Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage|url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ef-scale.html|website=The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)|publisher=Storm Prediction Center|access-date=February 25, 2016|date=March 5, 2015}}</ref> Canada used the old scale until April&nbsp;1, 2013;<ref name="FscaleCanada">{{cite web |title=Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale) |url=https://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=41E875DA-1 |website=Environment and Climate Change Canada |access-date=February 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220706/http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=41E875DA-1 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |date=June 6, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the [[TORRO scale]].<ref name="TORROscale">{{cite web|title=The International Tornado Intensity Scale |url=http://www.torro.org.uk/tscale.php |website=Tornado and Storm Research Organisation |access-date=February 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305120332/http://www.torro.org.uk/tscale.php |archive-date=March 5, 2016 |year=2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}{{refn|group=nb|name=Count|Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.{{sfn|Grazulis|2001a|pp=251–4}} Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.<ref name="TornadoClimaFAQ">{{cite web|last1=Edwards|first1=Roger|title=The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)|url=http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/#Climatology|website=Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes|publisher=[[Storm Prediction Center]]|access-date=February 25, 2016|date=March 5, 2015}}</ref> Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced [[NEXRAD]] was first installed and the [[National Weather Service]] began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.<ref name="CookSchaefer">{{harvnb|Cook|Schaefer|2008|p=3135}}</ref>}}


==Background==
==Background==

Revision as of 17:38, 15 July 2023

Hurricane Hilda tornado outbreak
Colored dots superimposed on white line passing over green land masses and blue water bodies
Map plotting the track and intensity of the storm, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
TypeTornado outbreak
Tropical cyclone
DurationOctober 3–4, 1964
Tornadoes
confirmed		12
Max. rating1F4 tornado
Duration of
tornado outbreak2		1 day, 11 hours, 30 minutes
Fatalities22 fatalities, 175 injuries
Damage≥ $8.107 million (1964 USD)[1][nb 1]
$79.6 million (2024 USD)
Areas affectedSoutheastern United States

1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale
2Time from first tornado to last tornado

On October 3–4, 1964, Hurricane Hilda and its remnants generated a tornado outbreak over portions of the Southeastern United States. The outbreak, which yielded at least 12 confirmed tornadoes, killed 22 people and injured 175 others. Most of the casualties occurred as a result of a violent tornado that devastated the northern outskirts of Larose, Louisiana, becoming the deadliest hurricane-generated tornado on record since 1900 and one of only two violent tornadoes (F4+) recorded in the southern Gulf Coast region of Louisiana. The tornado was also one of only two F4s known to have been produced by a tropical cyclone, the other having occurred during Hurricane Carla on September 12, 1961.[2][3][4][nb 2][nb 3][nb 4]

Background

At 23:00 UTC on October 3, 1964, Hurricane Hilda made landfall at 29°30′N 91°30′W / 29.5°N 91.5°W / 29.5; -91.5, near Calumet, Louisiana, with maximum sustained winds of 105 mph (169 km/h) and an estimated atmospheric pressure of 959 mb (28.3 inHg).[14] Although Hilda extensively damaged portions of Louisiana, most of its severest impacts, including the vast majority of fatalities, were related to hurricane-spawned tornadoes, along with inland flooding.[15][16]

Outbreak statistics

Impacts by region
Region Locale County Deaths Injuries Damages Source
United States Alabama Barbour 0 3 $2,500 [1][17]
Butler 0 0 $25,000 [1]
Conecuh 0 0 $2,500 [1]
Louisiana Assumption 0 0 $25,000 [1]
Jefferson 0 3 $2,500,000 [1]
Lafourche 22 165 $2,527,500 [1]
Orleans 0 2 $25,000 [1]
St. Tammany 0 0 $2,500 [1]
North Carolina Un­known 0 2 $500,000 [1][18]
Total 22 175 $8,107,000 [1]

Confirmed tornadoes

Confirmed tornadoes by Fujita rating
FU F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 Total
0 0 4 7 0 1 0 12

October 3 event

Confirmed tornadoes – Saturday, October 3, 1964[nb 5][nb 6]
F# Location County / Parish State Start
coord. 		Time (UTC) Path length Max. width Summary
F1 Golden Meadow Lafourche LA 29°22′N 90°14′W / 29.37°N 90.23°W / 29.37; -90.23 (Golden Meadow (October 3, F1)) 11:45–? 0.5 miles (0.80 km) 33 yards (30 m) A brief tornado downed utility wires and damaged several structures. Losses totaled $2,500.[20][21]
F1 Galliano Lafourche LA 29°26′N 90°17′W / 29.43°N 90.28°W / 29.43; -90.28 (Galliano (October 3, F1)) 12:00–? 0.5 miles (0.80 km) 33 yards (30 m) A short-lived tornado affected up to 10 homes and a funeral parlor. Several of the homes shifted on their CBS foundations or were overturned. Some boats were sunk and power lines downed as well. Losses totaled $25,000. Some minor injuries may have occurred.[22][21]
F4 Northern Larose Lafourche LA 29°36′N 90°22′W / 29.60°N 90.37°W / 29.60; -90.37 (Larose (October 3, F4)) 12:30–? 1.5 miles (2.4 km) 67 yards (61 m) 22 deaths – This devastating, violent tornado paralleled Highway 1 as it leveled a 1-mile-long (1.6 km) swath of homes. Only "shells" of brick homes remained in a few locations. Observers reported debris in Coteau, 16 mi (26 km) to the west of Larose. 165 people were injured and losses totaled $21⁄2 million. This was the deadliest hurricane-spawned tornado on record since 1900 and one of only two such tornadoes on record to have attained F4 intensity.[23][21][24][3][2]
F2 New Orleans to Kenner Orleans, Jefferson LA 29°56′N 90°13′W / 29.93°N 90.22°W / 29.93; -90.22 (Waggaman (October 3, F2)) 15:00–15:20 14.2 miles (22.9 km) 83 yards (76 m) This possible tornado family initially damaged automobiles and structures in the French Quarter of New Orleans. It then skipped to the intersection of the Veterans Highway and the Causeway, damaging gasoline stations and nearby buildings. Several vehicles, including a truck, were overturned or thrown into the air. Broken glass injured three people in Jefferson Parish and losses there totaled $21⁄2 million. Two other injuries and an additional $21⁄2 in losses occurred in Orleans Parish. At Kenner the tornado badly damaged 17 homes, several of which were unroofed. The NCEI indicates that the tornado developed north-northwest of Waggaman and ended near Seabrook.[25][26][21][24]
F2 Oakley to Attakapas Canal Assumption LA 29°55′N 91°06′W / 29.92°N 91.10°W / 29.92; -91.10 (Oakley (October 3, F2)) 17:10–17:15 1.5 miles (2.4 km) 100 yards (91 m) This tornado tracked generally westward. It passed near Napoleonville, felling several trees. Homes and other structures shifted on their foundations or were unroofed. Losses totaled $25,000.[27][21][24]
F2 White Sand to W of West Poplarville Pearl River MS 30°48′N 89°39′W / 30.80°N 89.65°W / 30.80; -89.65 (White Sand (October 3, F2)) 21:20–? 3.3 miles (5.3 km) 33 yards (30 m) This strong tornado destroyed a pumphouse, a pair of barns, and a small house. Losses were unknown.[28][21][24]

October 4 event

Confirmed tornadoes – Sunday, October 4, 1964[nb 5][nb 6]
F# Location County / Parish State Start
coord. 		Time (UTC) Path length Max. width Summary
F2 WNW of Lewisburg St. Tammany LA 30°23′N 90°08′W / 30.38°N 90.13°W / 30.38; -90.13 (Lewisburg (October 4, F2)) 09:25–? 1 mile (1.6 km) 183 yards (167 m) This tornado destroyed or damaged six lightweight homes. Debris was strewn over a 5-mile (8.0 km) area. Losses totaled $25,000.[29][17][24]
F1 N of Flat Rock Conecuh AL 31°30′N 86°50′W / 31.50°N 86.83°W / 31.50; -86.83 (Flat Rock (October 4, F1)) 15:15–? 0.1 miles (0.16 km) 33 yards (30 m) A tornado damaged several outbuildings and a few houses. Losses totaled $2,500.[30][17]
F1 Northwestern Georgiana Butler AL 31°38′N 86°46′W / 31.63°N 86.77°W / 31.63; -86.77 (Georgiana (October 4, F1)) 16:20–? 3.3 miles (5.3 km) 100 yards (91 m) A tornado unroofed, destroyed, or otherwise damaged 19 houses, many barns, and a fertilizer plant. Numerous trees were downed as well. Losses totaled $25,000. Tornado researcher Thomas P. Grazulis classified the tornado as an F2.[31][17][24]
F2 NW of Williamston to SE of Alligator Martin, Washington, Tyrrell NC 35°52′N 77°04′W / 35.87°N 77.07°W / 35.87; -77.07 (Williamston (October 4, F2)) 20:30–21:30 54.1 miles (87.1 km) 50 yards (46 m) A possible tornado family severely damaged or destroyed outbuildings and five homes. It also moved heavy machinery for an unknown distance. Losses totaled $250,000. The publication Storm Data lists one injury.[32][18][24]
F2 Western Eufaula Barbour AL 31°48′N 85°12′W / 31.80°N 85.20°W / 31.80; -85.20 (Eufaula (October 4, F2)) 21:00–? 0.1 miles (0.16 km) 33 yards (30 m) A tornado affected buildings along Pump Station Road in Eufaula. It destroyed or damaged two houses, a factory, and a hospital. Three people were injured and losses totaled $2,500.[33][17]
F2 NE of Cedar Grove to N of Penderlea Columbus, Bladen, Pender NC 34°18′N 78°54′W / 34.30°N 78.90°W / 34.30; -78.90 (Cedar Grove (October 4, F2)) 23:15–01:00 54.6 miles (87.9 km) 50 yards (46 m) This possible tornado family destroyed or damaged a trailer home, tobacco barns, various outbuildings, a few warehouses, and five homes. Losses totaled $250,000. The publication Storm Data lists one injury.[34][18]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ All losses are in 1964 USD unless otherwise noted.
  2. ^ An outbreak is generally defined as a group of at least six tornadoes (the number sometimes varies slightly according to local climatology) with no more than a six-hour gap between individual tornadoes. An outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[5]
  3. ^ The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[6][7] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[8] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[9] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[10]
  4. ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[11] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[12] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[13]
  5. ^ a b All dates are based on the local time zone where the tornado touched down; however, all times are in Coordinated Universal Time and dates are split at midnight CST/CDT for consistency.
  6. ^ a b Prior to 1994, only the average widths of tornado paths were officially listed.[19]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Storm Data Publication 1964, Events Reported
  2. ^ a b Edwards 2012, p. 2.
  3. ^ a b Hagemeyer, Bartlett C.; Spratt, Scott M. (2002). Written at Melbourne, Florida. Thirty Years After Hurricane Agnes: the Forgotten Florida Tornado Disaster (PDF). 25th Conference on Hurricanes and Tropical Meteorology. San Diego, California: American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 16, 2008.
  4. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P.; Grazulis, Doris (April 26, 2000). "The United States' Worst Tornadoes". The Tornado Project. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: Environmental Films. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. Retrieved August 18, 2021.
  5. ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
  6. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
  7. ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
  8. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  9. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  10. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  11. ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
  12. ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
  13. ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135
  14. ^ IBTrACS 2021, 1964273N21280
  15. ^ U.S. Weather Bureau (1961). "Page 5". Preliminary report on Hurricane "Hilda". National Hurricane Center (Report). Miami: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved November 29, 2024.
  16. ^ Roth, David. "Hurricane Hilda - September 28 – October 5, 1964". Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima. Silver Spring, Maryland: United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Weather Prediction Center. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
  17. ^ a b c d e USWB 1964, p. 106.
  18. ^ a b c USWB 1964, p. 108.
  19. ^ Brooks 2004, p. 310.
  20. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10030798
  21. ^ a b c d e f USWB 1964, p. 107.
  22. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10030799
  23. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10030801
  24. ^ a b c d e f g Grazulis 1993, p. 1057.
  25. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10030802
  26. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10030803
  27. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10030804
  28. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10048245
  29. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10030805
  30. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #9978107
  31. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #9978108
  32. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10077779
  33. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #9978109
  34. ^ Storm Data Publication 1964, #10077994

Sources

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