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Cleveland was a hub for [[United Airlines]] from the post–World War II era until the mid-1980s. After United moved out, [[Continental Airlines]] moved in, making it the dominant carrier at the airport in the 1990s and 2000s. After United and Continental merged in 2010, United closed the Cleveland hub, though it still has a flight attendant base, pilot base, and maintenance facilities at the airport and is its largest carrier by passenger count.
Cleveland was a hub for [[United Airlines]] from the post–World War II era until the mid-1980s. After United moved out, [[Continental Airlines]] moved in, making it the dominant carrier at the airport in the 1990s and 2000s. After United and Continental merged in 2010, United closed the Cleveland hub, though it still has a flight attendant base, pilot base, and maintenance facilities at the airport and is its largest carrier by passenger count.


When United stopped using Cleveland as a hub, it closed Terminal D, but the airline kept paying to lease the facility, preventing it from being used by another airline. However, United's hub closure created an opening for [[Low-cost carrier|low-cost carriers]] to enter the market, which had previously had among highest average fares in the country. Within a few years after United closed the hub, passenger traffic rebounded to where it was before the closure.
When United stopped using Cleveland as a hub, it closed Concourse D, but the airline kept paying to lease the facility, preventing it from being used by another airline. However, United's hub closure created an opening for [[Low-cost carrier|low-cost carriers]] to enter the market, which had previously had among highest average fares in the country. Within a few years after United closed the hub, passenger traffic rebounded to where it was before the closure.


Cleveland Hopkins offers non-stop passenger service to nearly 40 destinations. Cleveland Hopkins is operated by the Cleveland Department of Port Control, which also operates [[Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport|Burke Lakefront Airport]] located downtown.
Cleveland Hopkins offers non-stop passenger service to nearly 40 destinations. Cleveland Hopkins is operated by the Cleveland Department of Port Control, which also operates [[Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport|Burke Lakefront Airport]] located downtown.

Revision as of 01:04, 24 July 2023

"Cleveland Airport" redirects here. For the other airport serving Cleveland, Ohio, see Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport. For other airports, see Cleveland Municipal Airport.

Cleveland Hopkins International Airport
Summary
Airport typePublic
OwnerCity of Cleveland
OperatorDepartment of Port Control
ServesGreater Cleveland
LocationHopkins, Cleveland, Ohio, United States
OpenedJuly 1, 1925; 99 years ago (1925-07-01)
Operating base forFrontier Airlines
Coordinates41°24′42″N 081°50′59″W / 41.41167°N 81.84972°W / 41.41167; -81.84972
Websiteclevelandairport.com
Maps
FAA airport diagram
FAA airport diagram
Map
Runways
Direction Length Surface
ft m
06L/24R 9,000 2,743 Concrete
06R/24L 9,953 3,034 Concrete
10/28 6,018 1,834 Asphalt/Concrete
Statistics (2022)
Aircraft landings41,641
Total passengers8,695,234 Increase+19.38%[3]
Source: FAA[1] and CLE airport.[2]

Cleveland Hopkins International Airport (IATA: CLE, ICAO: KCLE, FAA LID: CLE) is an international airport in Cleveland, Ohio, United States. It is the primary airport serving Greater Cleveland and Northeast Ohio, the largest and busiest airport in the state, and the 43rd busiest airport in the U.S. by passenger numbers. Located in Cleveland's Hopkins neighborhood 9 miles (14 km) southwest of Downtown Cleveland, it is adjacent to the Glenn Research Center, one of NASA's ten major field centers.[1]

The airport has been at the forefront of several innovations that are now commonplace. It was the first airport with an air traffic control tower and a two-level design separating arrivals from departures. It was also the first airport in North America to be directly connected with a rail transit line.

Cleveland was a hub for United Airlines from the post–World War II era until the mid-1980s. After United moved out, Continental Airlines moved in, making it the dominant carrier at the airport in the 1990s and 2000s. After United and Continental merged in 2010, United closed the Cleveland hub, though it still has a flight attendant base, pilot base, and maintenance facilities at the airport and is its largest carrier by passenger count.

When United stopped using Cleveland as a hub, it closed Concourse D, but the airline kept paying to lease the facility, preventing it from being used by another airline. However, United's hub closure created an opening for low-cost carriers to enter the market, which had previously had among highest average fares in the country. Within a few years after United closed the hub, passenger traffic rebounded to where it was before the closure.

Cleveland Hopkins offers non-stop passenger service to nearly 40 destinations. Cleveland Hopkins is operated by the Cleveland Department of Port Control, which also operates Burke Lakefront Airport located downtown.

History

Cleveland Hopkins is of particular importance to the history of commercial air travel due to a number of first-in-the-world innovations that would eventually become the global standard. Founded on July 1, 1925, it was one of the first municipality-owned facility of its kind in the United States.[4] It was the site of the first air traffic control tower,[5] the first ground-to-air radio control system, and the first airfield lighting system,[6] all in 1930; and it was the first U.S. airport to be directly connected to a local or regional rail transit system, in 1968.[7]

It was also the first airport to employ a two-level terminal design separating arrivals from departures. The airport was named after its founder, former city manager William R. Hopkins, on his 82nd birthday in 1951.

First closure of United hub and establishment of Continental hub

United Airlines established its easternmost domestic hub in Cleveland after World War II, which it maintained until the mid-1980s, when it closed its Cleveland hub and moved capacity to a new hub at Washington–Dulles. Following the closure of the United hub, Continental Airlines (which at the time was a separate carrier and lacked a Midwest hub) responded by adding capacity to Cleveland, as did USAir, which was the dominant carrier at the airport from 1987 until the early 1990s.[8] While USAir soon reduced its schedule from Cleveland, Continental substantially increased its hub capacity, becoming the airport's largest tenant and eventually accounting for upwards of 60 percent of passenger traffic. Continental and the airport both made substantial operational and capital investments in the airport's infrastructure. In 1992, the airport completed a $50 million renovation of Concourse C, which housed all of Continental's flights. The renovation included the installation of a continuous skylight, a Continental President's Club lounge, and a new Baggage Claim area.[9] In 1999, the airport completed an $80 million expansion that included the construction of the new Concourse D (now closed), which was built to accommodate Continental Express and Continental Connection flights.

Cleveland acquired its first scheduled transatlantic service in June 1999. Continental Airlines launched flights to London's Gatwick Airport aboard a Boeing 757.[10][11][12] They were suspended after the September 11 attacks and resumed in April 2002.[13][14] The following year, Continental made the route seasonal.[15][16] In 2008 the company added seasonal service to Paris, a hub of its partner Air France, although it only lasted one season.[16][17]

Continental began flying into London's Heathrow Airport instead of Gatwick in 2009; Heathrow offered more connecting flights. However, the airline discontinued the service at the end of the season in September, citing the recession and an inability to obtain affordable seasonal slots at Heathrow.[17][18] The company was also about to join the Star Alliance, to which United Airlines belonged. Consequently, London-bound passengers would be able to transit through United's Chicago hub instead of Cleveland. The cancellation of the route left the city without a direct link to Europe.[18]

Continental–United merger and second closure of United hub

In 2010, Continental and United Airlines announced that they would merge operations.[19] The merger prompted concerns that a post-merger United would reduce or close its hub in Cleveland and instead route passengers through the new United's Chicago-O'Hare and Washington-Dulles hubs.[20][21] On November 10, 2010, Continental CEO Jeff Smisek stated in a speech in Cleveland that "Cleveland needs to earn its hub status every day" and added that overall profitability would be the determining factor in whether the new United kept or closed the Cleveland hub.[22]

United continued to reduce its capacity in Cleveland following the merger, which already had been substantially reduced in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis.[23] On February 1, 2014, United announced that the airline would shut down its Cleveland hub, stating as justification that the airline's hub at Cleveland "hasn't been profitable for over a decade."[24] By June 5, 2014, United had effectively terminated its hub operation at the airport, reducing its daily departures by more than 60%.[25] United also closed Concourse D and consolidated all of its remaining operations in Concourse C, although it is required to continue to pay the airport $1,112,482 a month in rent for the facility until 2027.[26]

Post-hub history

The airport initially experienced a sharp decline in passenger counts following the closure of United's hub in 2014. Several other airlines, however, increased their service to Cleveland in subsequent years. Frontier Airlines significantly increased its service to the airport and declared Cleveland a focus city. New routes connected Cleveland with destinations as far as Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan, Puerto Rico. As of May 2023, there are discussions as to whether Frontier would make Cleveland a crew base.[27][28][29]

Other low-cost airlines such as Spirit Airlines and Allegiant Air began new service to the airport as well, and existing airlines such as American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines also increased their number of daily flights and destinations. As a result, by 2017, the airport's passenger count exceeded levels achieved during the last full year that United maintained a hub in Cleveland.

Despite the closure of its hub, as of 2017 United still maintained roughly 1,200 employees in Greater Cleveland, including a flight attendant and pilot base as well as maintenance facilities.[30] United also remains the largest carrier at Hopkins. Regional airline CommutAir, which flies exclusively on behalf of United Express, is headquartered in nearby North Olmsted.[31]

Icelandair and Wow Air inaugurated flights to Reykjavík in May 2018, reconnecting Cleveland with Europe. Wow Air employed Airbus A321s on the route, while Icelandair used a Boeing 737 MAX.[32][33][34] Wow Air left Cleveland in October 2018 amid financial troubles.[32][35] Icelandair decided to make its service seasonal, with the first season ending in October.[32] In March 2019, however, the carrier announced it would not be returning. The Boeing 737 MAX had been grounded, and some analysts said Icelandair might have been unsatisfied with the route's performance.[35]

In May 2023, Aer Lingus launched flights between Cleveland and Dublin on Airbus A321LR aircraft. It was the airline's first new service since 2019. At the time, it was the only nonstop flight between Europe and Cleveland.[36][37]

In 2023, Cleveland was one of the areas where United Airlines pilots picketed in pursuit of a better contract.[38][39]

Facilities

Satellite view of the airport.
Hopkins Airport's giant "paper" airplane sculptures, located in the underground walkway between Concourses C and D (now closed to the public).
The Cleveland RTA's Airport station.

Terminal

Cleveland Hopkins consists of one two-level passenger terminal, which was completed in 1978, and renovated in 2016. There are four concourses, three of which are currently in use.

  • Concourse A houses Frontier, Spirit, charters, and all international arrivals. Delta Air Lines also uses it for overflow parking and sports charters. It also houses the airport's Federal Inspection Services (FIS) customs and border protection facility. Originally known as "North Concourse", it was opened in 1957 and rebuilt in 1978–79. Allegiant Air used this Concourse until January 2022 when it terminated all flights to Cleveland.
  • Concourse B houses Delta and Southwest. Originally the “West Concourse”, it was built in 1954 as the first extension pier to the airport, and was rebuilt and expanded from 1982 to 1983.
  • Concourse C houses Air Canada Express, Alaska, American, JetBlue and all United services, except for international arrivals which are handled in Concourse A. Originally known as "South Concourse", it opened in 1969 and was renovated in 1992.
  • Concourse D has been vacant since 2014, when United closed its gates and consolidated all operations to Concourse C.[40] Built in 1999, it is a separate terminal connected to Concourse C by an underground walkway. Although capable of handling larger jets such as the Boeing 737,[41] it exclusively handled smaller regional aircraft during its operation. Concourse D contains 12 jet bridge gates and 24 ramp loading positions.[41]

Gates A2, A6, and occasionally A7 are used by Spirit. Gates A1, A8, A10, & A12 are used by Frontier. Gates A14, occasionally A12 as well, are used for international arrivals. Gate A4 is not used and not in operable condition. Gates A3 and A5 are not currently used.

Gates B2, B3, B4, B5, & B6 are used by Delta. Gates B7, B8, B9, B10, & B11 are used by Southwest. Gate B1 is a stairwell and is not in use.

Gates C2, C3, C5, C7, C8, C9, C10, C11, & C14 are used by American. Primary gates are C3, C5, C7, C9, & C11; for overflow and from time to time they will use C8, C10, & C14. Gate C6 is used by JetBlue. Gates C17, C18, C19, C21, C22, C23, C24, C25, C26, C27, & C29 are used by United. Gate C20 is used by Air Canada. Gates C16 & C28 are not in use. Gate C4 is being used by Alaska Airlines as of June 2022. Gate C8 is being used by AerLingus as of May 2023.

In 2022, the airport began discussions for a $2 billion renovation. The airport wanted to expand security and check-in counters, add an improved checked baggage inspection system, expand gate waiting areas, and add 8 new gates to be able to accept additional flights. Concourses A and C will be renovated, concourse B would be rebuilt, and a new concourse would be built to replace Concourse D.[42]

Runways

Cleveland Hopkins covers an area of 1,717 acres (695 ha) and has three runways:[1][43]

  • 06R/24L: 9,953 ft × 150 ft (3,034 m × 46 m) concrete
  • 06L/24R: 9,000 ft × 150 ft (2,743 m × 46 m) concrete
  • 10/28: 6,018 ft × 150 ft (1,834 m × 46 m) asphalt/concrete

Other facilities

Cleveland Hopkins is home to both crew and maintenance bases for United Airlines.[44]

The airport is also home to one of five kitchens operated by airline catering company Chelsea Food Services, a subsidiary of United Airlines.

Cleveland Airmall, a unit of Fraport USA, manages the retail and dining locations at the airport. Tenants include Johnston & Murphy, Great Lakes Brewing Company, Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Museum Store, Bar Symon, and Sunglass Hut.[45]

A Sheraton Hotel also occupies the airport grounds immediately east of the terminal. Built in 1959, it has 243 rooms and was a popular layover point for passengers and crews during the airport’s hub days with United and Continental. The hotel closed in June 2022 after its ownership group defaulted on its loans. The airport subsequently acquired the building and intends to demolish it in order to add more parking spaces.

The airport has two lounges: a United Club in Concourse C and The Club CLE near the entrance to Concourse B in the Main Terminal.

In November 2022, an area man broke onto airport property, drove onto a runway, and destroyed radar equipment at the airport.[46][47][48]

Ground transportation

The airport is connected to the Cleveland Rapid Transit system with the Red Line Rapid Transit station beneath the terminal. The airport has a dedicated taxi service of 110 vehicles.[49] In 2023, the airport received $3.2 million from President Joe Biden's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law to renovate, among other terminal facilities, the public transportation tunnel to the airport. This will include modernizing wall surfaces, replacing the tunnel ceiling and waterproof membrane in the tunnel tramway, structural repairs, and installation of a new drainage system.[50]

Rental car operations are located at a consolidated rental car facility off the airport property. Shuttle services are provided between the airport and the facility.

Airlines and destinations

Passenger

AirlinesDestinationsRefs
Aer Lingus Dublin [51]
Air Canada Express Toronto–Pearson [52]
Alaska Airlines Seattle/Tacoma [53]
American Airlines Charlotte, Dallas/Fort Worth
Seasonal: Chicago–O'Hare, Miami, Philadelphia, Phoenix-Sky Harbor 		[54]
American Eagle Charlotte, Chicago–O'Hare, Miami, New York–JFK, New York–LaGuardia, Philadelphia, Washington–National [54]
Delta Air Lines Atlanta, Detroit
Seasonal: Minneapolis/St. Paul 		[55]
Delta Connection Boston, Detroit, Minneapolis/St. Paul, New York–JFK, New York–LaGuardia [55]
Frontier Airlines Cancún, Denver, Fort Lauderdale, Fort Myers, Las Vegas, Orlando, Phoenix–Sky Harbor, Punta Cana, San Juan, Tampa
Seasonal: Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas/Fort Worth, Philadelphia, Raleigh/Durham, San Diego, San Francisco 		[56]
JetBlue Boston [57]
Southwest Airlines Atlanta, Baltimore, Chicago–Midway, Denver, Las Vegas, Nashville, Orlando, Phoenix–Sky Harbor, St. Louis
Seasonal: Fort Myers, Sarasota, Tampa 		[58]
Spirit Airlines Atlanta, Fort Lauderdale, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Miami, Orlando
Seasonal: Fort Myers, Myrtle Beach, Tampa 		[59]
United Airlines Cancún, Chicago–O'Hare, Denver, Fort Lauderdale, Houston–Intercontinental, Los Angeles, Newark, Orlando, San Francisco, Washington–Dulles
Seasonal: Fort Myers, Tampa (resumes October 29, 2023) 		[60]
United Express Chicago–O'Hare, Houston–Intercontinental, Newark, Washington–Dulles [60]

Cargo

AirlinesDestinations
Castle Aviation Akron/Canton, Columbus–Rickenbacker, Hamilton (ON)
FedEx Express Columbus–Rickenbacker, Indianapolis, Memphis
FedEx Feeder Erie
UPS Airlines Chicago/Rockford, Greensboro, Fargo, Louisville
Seasonal: Boston, Columbus–Rickenbacker, Hartford, Peoria, Philadelphia, Ontario (CA)

Statistics

Airline market share

Largest Airlines at CLE
(April 2022 - March 2023)[61]
Rank Carrier Percentage Passengers
1 United Airlines 23.23% 1,962,000
2 Frontier Airlines 13.76% 1,162,000
3 Southwest Airlines 12.61% 1,065,000
4 Spirit Airlines 11.44% 967,000
5 American Airlines 11.19% 945,000
Other 27.77% 2,346,000

Top destinations

Busiest domestic routes from CLE (April 2022 - March 2023)[61]
Rank City Passengers Carriers
1 Georgia (U.S. state) Atlanta, Georgia 425,000 Delta, Southwest, Spirit
2 Illinois Chicago–O'Hare, Illinois 328,000 American, United
3 Florida Orlando, Florida 314,000 Frontier, Southwest, Spirit, United
4 Colorado Denver, Colorado 280,000 Frontier, Southwest, United
5 Texas Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas 209,000 American, Spirit
6 North Carolina Charlotte, North Carolina 185,000 American
7 New Jersey Newark, New Jersey 177,000 United
8 Florida Tampa, Florida 156,000 Frontier, Southwest, Spirit, United
9 Florida Fort Lauderdale, Florida 147,000 Frontier, JetBlue, Spirit, United
10 Illinois Chicago–Midway, Illinois 144,000 Southwest

Annual passenger traffic

Annual passenger traffic at CLE airport. See Wikidata query.
Annual passenger traffic at CLE
1999–Present[62]
Year Passengers Year Passengers Year Passengers
1999 13,020,285 2009 9,715,604 2019 10,040,817
2000 13,288,059 2010 9,492,455 2020 4,122,517
2001 11,864,411 2011 9,176,824 2021 7,283,896
2002 10,795,270 2012 9,004,983 2022 8,695,234
2003 10,555,387 2013 9,072,126 2023
2004 11,264,937 2014 7,609,404 2024
2005 11,463,391 2015 8,100,073 2025
2006 11,321,050 2016 8,422,676 2026
2007 11,459,390 2017 9,140,445 2027
2008 11,106,196 2018 9,642,729 2028

Basic Aircraft Statistics

For the 12-month period ending December 31, 2021, the airport had 91,615 aircraft operations, an average of 251 per day. This was 79% commercial, 14% air taxi, 7% general aviation, and <1% military. For the same time period, 43 aircraft were based at the airport: 37 jets, 4 military aircraft, and 2 multi-engine airplanes.[63]

Accidents and incidents

  • On May 24, 1938, United Air Lines Flight 9, a Douglas DC-3 flying from Newark to Chicago via Cleveland crashed on approach to Cleveland killing all seven passengers and three crew members on board.[64]
  • On August 27, 1971, a Chicago & Southern Airlines Volpar Turboliner with 2 occupants on board suffered a loss of power on the no.1 engine shortly after takeoff, it stalled and crashed killing 1 crew member of the 2 on board.[65]
  • On December 18, 1978, an Allegheny Commuter DeHavilland Heron (operated by Fischer Brothers Aviation) was landing at Cleveland from Mansfield Lahm Airport when a ground controller cleared a snow plow to cross the runway at the same time the aircraft was landing, resulting in a collision. The flight had a crew of 2 pilots and 15 passengers. There were no fatalities nor serious injuries. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair.[66]
  • On January 4, 1985, an armed 42-year-old Cleveland woman named Oranette Mays hijacked Pan Am flight 558, a Boeing 727 scheduled to fly from Cleveland to New York City's John F. Kennedy International Airport. During the boarding process for the flight in Cleveland, Mays shot her way onto the plane, shooting and injuring a USAir employee who tried to stop her in the process. Mays then commandeered the plane, took 7 hostages (including an 8-month-old baby), and demanded to be taken to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. After a 6-hour stand-off, a SWAT team made up of Cleveland police and FBI agents stormed the plane. Mays and an officer were shot before police were able to arrest Mays.[67]
  • On February 17, 1991, Ryan International Airlines Flight 590, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-15 cargo flight bound for Indianapolis International Airport stalled and crashed after takeoff from CLE due to wing contamination. While the DC-9 was on the ground for 35 minutes, there was no de-icing service on the aircraft and blowing snow accumulated on the wings, causing a stall and loss of control on takeoff. Both occupants were killed.[68][69]
  • On December 15, 1992, a Mohican Air Service Volpar Turboliner II on a ferry flight crashed after its initial climb, the sole occupant was killed. Improper installation of the elevator during recent maintenance on the aircraft was the probable cause.[70]
  • On January 6, 2003, a Continental Express Embraer ERJ 145LR overran the runway upon landing from Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks, CT. The airplane continued beyond the departure end, on the extended runway centerline, and struck the ILS runway 6 localizer antenna. It came to rest with the nose about 600 feet (180 m) beyond the end of the runway. The nose landing gear had collapsed rearward and deformed the forward pressure bulkhead.[71]
  • On November 29, 2004, an Embraer EMB-135BJ sustained substantial damage during a ground collision with a parked airplane while taxiing after landing at the Cleveland-Hopkins International Airport. While exiting taxiway "J" with the co-pilot steering the airplane from the left seat, the airplane entered a ramp area where scheduled maintenance was to be performed. However, another EMB-135BJ had been parked perpendicular to the ramp entrance, with its nose wheel approximately 30 feet from the front of a hangar, and with its tail approximately 45 feet from the edge of the ramp pavement. According to written statements provided by the flight crew, per their standard operating procedures, they waited at the ramp entrance for a marshaller to assist them in parking. When one did not arrive, they decided to pass behind the parked airplane slowly, but while the pilot attempted to verbally direct the co-pilot and observe the position of the right wingtip, the airplane's right winglet collided with the parked airplane. The probable cause of the incident was found to be the pilot in command's improper decision to continue taxi without a ground marshaller, and her misjudged clearance from a parked airplane, which resulted in a ground collision during taxi.[72]
  • On February 18, 2007, Delta Connection Flight 6448, an Embraer E 170 operated by Shuttle America with 4 crew members and 71 passengers aboard, landed at CLE in snowy weather & gusty winds. Despite the use of full reverse and braking, the aircraft didn't slow down, left the runway and partially went through a fence 150 feet from the end of the runway. There were no fatalities. Even though the aircraft was substantially damaged, it was repaired and put back into service.[73]
  • On July 26, 2016, a flight attendant on an Embraer E170 inbound to Cleveland Hopkins was injured after an inadvertent encounter with turbulence. The aircraft landed safely.[74]

Controversies

Ground Transportation Center

In May 2015, the airport moved the pick-up and drop off location for most shuttles to the former limo lot, requiring most passengers to take two escalators underneath the former shuttle parking in the arrivals lane at the airport. Originally meant to be a temporary fix, the airport made the Ground Transportation Center a permanent fixture in May 2017. This angered many travelers, who complained on various social media platforms, as well as local media outlets, garnering negative publicity for the airport's plans.[75] In March 2019, the pick ups and drop offs location for most of the shuttles (except for limo shuttles) have moved to the north end of the baggage claim level.

Parking

In May 2013, the airport demolished its aging, 2,600-space Long Term Garage, replacing it with a 1,000 space surface lot for $24M.[76] This in turn created a parking shortage, and daily lot closings when parking lots would become full. The airport's Twitter account became a daily update of parking closures at the airport. The airport converted the Short Term Garage to a so-called Smart Garage, and valet parking garage. The airport eliminated its free half-hour courtesy parking perk, and began to charge $3 for a half-hour.[77]

See also

References

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  33. ^ Glaser, Susan (May 4, 2018). "Cleveland Hopkins welcomes first transatlantic route in nearly a decade, with inaugural Wow Air flight to Iceland". Cleveland.com. Retrieved July 1, 2023.
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Sources

Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency

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