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'''Climate Change and Infectious Disease'''
'''Climate Change and Infectious Disease'''


The earth's climate is changing causing the oceans and the climate to warm resulting in extreme weather patterns which have brought about an increase of [[infectious diseases]]--both new and re-emerging. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=29-61|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=The Mosquito's Bite}}</ref> <ref name="Emerging Infections" /> These extreme weather patterns are creating extended [[rainy seasons]] in some areas <ref name="Sobering Predictions">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=62-79|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Sobering Predictions}}</ref> , and extended periods of [[drought]] in others, <ref name="IPCC">{{cite book|title=Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.|pages=747-845|author=Meehl, G.A., T.F. Stocker, W.D. Collins, P. Friedlingstein, A.T. Gaye, J.M. Gregory, A. Kitoh, R. Knutti, J.M. Murphy, A. Noda, S.C.B. Raper, I.G. Watterson, A.J. Weaver and Z.-C. Zhao|editor=Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller|chapter=Global Climate Projections}}</ref> as well and introducing new climates to different regions <ref name=IPCC />. These extended seasons are creating climates that are able to sustain [[vectors]] for longer periods of time, allowing them to multiply rapidly, and also creating climates that are allowing the introduction and survival of new vectors. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> .
The earth's climate is changing causing the oceans and the climate to warm resulting in extreme weather patterns which have brought about an increase of [[infectious diseases]]--both new and re-emerging. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=29–61|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=The Mosquito's Bite}}</ref> <ref name="Emerging Infections" /> These extreme weather patterns are creating extended [[rainy seasons]] in some areas <ref name="Sobering Predictions">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=62–79|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Sobering Predictions}}</ref> , and extended periods of [[drought]] in others, <ref name="IPCC">{{cite book|title=Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.|pages=747–845|author=Meehl, G.A., T.F. Stocker, W.D. Collins, P. Friedlingstein, A.T. Gaye, J.M. Gregory, A. Kitoh, R. Knutti, J.M. Murphy, A. Noda, S.C.B. Raper, I.G. Watterson, A.J. Weaver and Z.-C. Zhao|editor=Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller|chapter=Global Climate Projections}}</ref> as well and introducing new climates to different regions <ref name=IPCC />. These extended seasons are creating climates that are able to sustain [[vectors]] for longer periods of time, allowing them to multiply rapidly, and also creating climates that are allowing the introduction and survival of new vectors. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> .


'''Extreme Weather = New Diseases'''
'''Extreme Weather = New Diseases'''


“The rise of extreme weather is itself a symptom of an unstable climate. Moreover, the variance around the long-term warming trend has begun to influence [[biological systems]], Indeed, two main effects of climate change—warming and greater weather variability-mean that millions of people worldwide face a higher risk of infectious disease”. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> [[El Nino]] is an extreme weather pattern that is often responsible for increased precipitation, resulting in increased [[flooding]], creating a more promising breeding ground for a plethora of vectors that both carry and cause infectious diseases <ref name="Storms and Sickness">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=161-178|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Storms and Sickness}}</ref>.
“The rise of extreme weather is itself a symptom of an unstable climate. Moreover, the variance around the long-term warming trend has begun to influence [[biological systems]], Indeed, two main effects of climate change—warming and greater weather variability-mean that millions of people worldwide face a higher risk of infectious disease”. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> [[El Nino]] is an extreme weather pattern that is often responsible for increased precipitation, resulting in increased [[flooding]], creating a more promising breeding ground for a plethora of vectors that both carry and cause infectious diseases <ref name="Storms and Sickness">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=161–178|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Storms and Sickness}}</ref>.


Another result of the warming oceans are stronger [[hurricanes]], which will wreck more havoc on land, and in the oceans, <ref name="Storms and Sickness" /> and create more opportunities for vectors to breed and infectious diseases to flourish. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> [[Extreme weather]] also means stronger winds. These winds can carry vectors tens of thousands of kilometers, resulting in an introduction of new infectious disease to regions that have never seen them before, making the humans in these regions even more susceptible. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" />
Another result of the warming oceans are stronger [[hurricanes]], which will wreck more havoc on land, and in the oceans, <ref name="Storms and Sickness" /> and create more opportunities for vectors to breed and infectious diseases to flourish. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> [[Extreme weather]] also means stronger winds. These winds can carry vectors tens of thousands of kilometers, resulting in an introduction of new infectious disease to regions that have never seen them before, making the humans in these regions even more susceptible. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" />
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'''Warmer and Wetter Climates = More Diseases'''
'''Warmer and Wetter Climates = More Diseases'''


Mosquito-borne diseases are probably the greatest threat to humans as they carry [[malaria]], [[elephantiasis]], [[Rift Valley Fever]], [[Yellow Fever]], and [[Dengue Fever]].<ref name="Mosquitoes-Borne Disease">{{cite journal|last=Reiter|first=Paul|title=Climate Change and Mosquito-Borne Disease|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|year=2001|volume=109|issue=1|pages=141-161|url=http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2001/suppl-1/141-161reiter/abstract.html}}</ref> <ref name=elephantiasis>{{cite journal|last=Hunter, P.R.|title=Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease|journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology|year=2003|volume=94|pages=37S-46S}}</ref> <ref name="Climate change & health" /> Studies are showing higher prevalence of these diseases in areas that have experienced extreme flooding and drought. <ref name="Mosquitoes-Borne Disease" /> <ref name=elephantiasis /> Flooding creates more standing water for mosquitoes to breed; as well, shown that these vectors are able to feed more and grow faster in warmer climates <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> . As the climate warms over the oceans and coastal regions, warmer temperatures are also creeping up to higher elevations allowing mosquitoes to survive in areas they had never been able to before. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> As the climate continues to warm there is a risk that malaria will make a return to the developed world. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" />
Mosquito-borne diseases are probably the greatest threat to humans as they carry [[malaria]], [[elephantiasis]], [[Rift Valley Fever]], [[Yellow Fever]], and [[Dengue Fever]].<ref name="Mosquitoes-Borne Disease">{{cite journal|last=Reiter|first=Paul|title=Climate Change and Mosquito-Borne Disease|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|year=2001|volume=109|issue=1|pages=141–161|url=http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2001/suppl-1/141-161reiter/abstract.html}}</ref> <ref name=elephantiasis>{{cite journal|last=Hunter, P.R.|title=Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease|journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology|year=2003|volume=94|pages=37S–46S|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x |pmid=12675935 }}</ref> <ref name="Climate change & health" /> Studies are showing higher prevalence of these diseases in areas that have experienced extreme flooding and drought. <ref name="Mosquitoes-Borne Disease" /> <ref name=elephantiasis /> Flooding creates more standing water for mosquitoes to breed; as well, shown that these vectors are able to feed more and grow faster in warmer climates <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> . As the climate warms over the oceans and coastal regions, warmer temperatures are also creeping up to higher elevations allowing mosquitoes to survive in areas they had never been able to before. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> As the climate continues to warm there is a risk that malaria will make a return to the developed world. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" />


[[Ticks]] are also thriving in the warmer temperatures allowing them to feed and grow at a faster rate.<ref name=Ticks>{{cite journal|last=Süss, J., Klaus, C., Gerstengarbe, F.W., & Werner, P.C.|title=What Makes Ticks Tick? Climate Change, Ticks, and|journal=Journal of Travel Medicine|year=2008|volume=15|issue=1|pages=39-45|doi=10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x}}</ref> The [[black legged tick]], a carrier of [[Lyme disease]], when not feeding, spends its time burrowed in soil absorbing moisture. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> <ref name="Climate and Lyme Disease">{{cite journal|last=Subak|first=Susan|title=Effects of Climate on Variability in Lyme Disease Incidence in the Northeastern|journal=American Journal of Epidemiology|year=2003|volume=157|issue=6|pages=531-538|doi=10.1093/aje/kwg014}}</ref> Ticks die when the climate either becomes too cold or when the climate becomes too dry, causing the ticks to dry out. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> <ref name="Climate and Lyme Disease" /> The natural environmental controls that used to keep the tick populations in check are disappearing, and warmer and wetter climates are allowing the ticks to breed and grow at an alarming rate, resulting in an increase in Lyme disease, both in existing areas and in areas where it has not been seen before. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> <ref name=Ticks />
[[Ticks]] are also thriving in the warmer temperatures allowing them to feed and grow at a faster rate.<ref name=Ticks>{{cite journal|last=Süss, J., Klaus, C., Gerstengarbe, F.W., & Werner, P.C.|title=What Makes Ticks Tick? Climate Change, Ticks, and|journal=Journal of Travel Medicine|year=2008|volume=15|issue=1|pages=39–45|doi=10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x|pmid=18217868 }}</ref> The [[black legged tick]], a carrier of [[Lyme disease]], when not feeding, spends its time burrowed in soil absorbing moisture. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> <ref name="Climate and Lyme Disease">{{cite journal|last=Subak|first=Susan|title=Effects of Climate on Variability in Lyme Disease Incidence in the Northeastern|journal=American Journal of Epidemiology|year=2003|volume=157|issue=6|pages=531–538|doi=10.1093/aje/kwg014|pmid=12631543 }}</ref> Ticks die when the climate either becomes too cold or when the climate becomes too dry, causing the ticks to dry out. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> <ref name="Climate and Lyme Disease" /> The natural environmental controls that used to keep the tick populations in check are disappearing, and warmer and wetter climates are allowing the ticks to breed and grow at an alarming rate, resulting in an increase in Lyme disease, both in existing areas and in areas where it has not been seen before. <ref name="Sobering Predictions" /> <ref name=Ticks />


Other diseases on the rise due to extreme weather include: [[hantavirus]],<ref name=Hantavirus>{{cite journal|last=Klempa, B.|title=Hantaviruses and Climate Change|journal=European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases|year=2009|volume=15|issue=6|pages=518-523|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02848.x}}</ref> [[schistosomiasis]],<ref name=elephantiasis /> <ref name="Climate change & health">{{cite journal|last=McMichael, A.J., Woodruff, R.E., & Hales, S.|title=Climate change and human health: present and future risks|journal=The Lancet|date=11|year=2006|month=March|volume=367|issue=9513|pages=859-869|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)}}</ref> [[onchocerciasis]] (river blindness),<ref name="Climate change & health" /> and [[tuberculosis]]. <ref name="Emerging Infections">{{cite journal|last=Epstein|first=Paul R.|title=Climate change and emerging infectious diseases|journal=Microbes and Infection|year=2001|volume=3|pages=747-754}}</ref>
Other diseases on the rise due to extreme weather include: [[hantavirus]],<ref name=Hantavirus>{{cite journal|last=Klempa, B.|title=Hantaviruses and Climate Change|journal=European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases|year=2009|volume=15|issue=6|pages=518–523|doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02848.x|pmid=19604276 }}</ref> [[schistosomiasis]],<ref name=elephantiasis /> <ref name="Climate change & health">{{cite journal|last=McMichael, A.J., Woodruff, R.E., & Hales, S.|title=Climate change and human health: present and future risks|journal=The Lancet|date=11|year=2006|month=March|volume=367|issue=9513|pages=859–869|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)|doi-broken-date=2023-08-02 }}</ref> [[onchocerciasis]] (river blindness),<ref name="Climate change & health" /> and [[tuberculosis]]. <ref name="Emerging Infections">{{cite journal|last=Epstein|first=Paul R.|title=Climate change and emerging infectious diseases|journal=Microbes and Infection|year=2001|volume=3|issue=9 |pages=747–754|doi=10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01429-0 |pmid=11489423 }}</ref>




'''Warmer Oceans = New Diseases'''
'''Warmer Oceans = New Diseases'''


The warming oceans are becoming a breeding ground for toxic algae blooms (also known as [[red tides]]) and [[cholera]]. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> <ref name="Climate change & health" /> <ref name=Mozambique /> As the nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the oceans increase, the cholera bacteria that lives within [[zooplankton]] emerge from their dormant state.<ref name=Mozambique /> The changing winds and changing ocean currents push the zooplankton toward the coastline, carrying the cholera bacteria, which then contaminate drinking water, causing [[cholera outbreaks]]. <ref name=Mozambique>{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=6-28|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Mozambique}}</ref> As flooding increases there is also in increase in cholera epidemics as the flood waters that are carrying the bacteria are infiltrating the drinking water supply.<ref name="Global Health">{{cite journal|last=St. Louis, M.E., & Hess, J.J.|title=Climate Change Impacts on and Implications for Global Health|journal=American Journal of Preventative Medicine|year=2008|volume=35|issue=5|pages=527-538|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2008.08.023}}</ref> El Nino has also been linked with cholera outbreaks because this weather patter warms the shoreline waters, causing the cholera bacteria to multiply rapidly. <ref name=Mozambique /> <ref name="Global Health" />
The warming oceans are becoming a breeding ground for toxic algae blooms (also known as [[red tides]]) and [[cholera]]. <ref name="The Mosquito's Bite" /> <ref name="Climate change & health" /> <ref name=Mozambique /> As the nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the oceans increase, the cholera bacteria that lives within [[zooplankton]] emerge from their dormant state.<ref name=Mozambique /> The changing winds and changing ocean currents push the zooplankton toward the coastline, carrying the cholera bacteria, which then contaminate drinking water, causing [[cholera outbreaks]]. <ref name=Mozambique>{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|year=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=6–28|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Mozambique}}</ref> As flooding increases there is also in increase in cholera epidemics as the flood waters that are carrying the bacteria are infiltrating the drinking water supply.<ref name="Global Health">{{cite journal|last=St. Louis, M.E., & Hess, J.J.|title=Climate Change Impacts on and Implications for Global Health|journal=American Journal of Preventative Medicine|year=2008|volume=35|issue=5|pages=527–538|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2008.08.023|pmid=18929979 }}</ref> El Nino has also been linked with cholera outbreaks because this weather patter warms the shoreline waters, causing the cholera bacteria to multiply rapidly. <ref name=Mozambique /> <ref name="Global Health" />


Toxic algae blooms (red tides) are the result of a changing and warming climate.<ref name=Blooms>{{cite journal|last=Glick|first=Patricia|title=The Toll From Coal: Power Plants, Emissions, Wildlife, and Human Health|journal=Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society|year=2001|month=December|volume=21|issue=6|pages=482-500}}</ref> El Nino events precipitation resulting in flooding, which causes the coastal seawater to be infiltrated with runoff from the flooding land resulting in increased nitrogen and phosphorus which feed the algae and spur their growth. <ref name="Sea Change">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=122-137|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Sea Change}}</ref> These toxic blooms in turn infect [[shellfish]], which threatens the health of the millions of people who depend on shellfish for protein. <ref name="Sea Change" /> Paralytic shellfish poisoning is the most common result of red tides, as was seen in the 1987 outbreak in Prince Edward Island. <ref name="Sea Change" /> [[Ciguatera]] fish poisoning is also a result of red tides.<ref name="Marine Ecosystems">{{cite journal|last=Epstein P.R., Ford T.E., & Colwell R.R.|title=Marine Ecosystems|journal=The Lancet|date=13|year=1993|month=November|volume=342|issue=8881}}</ref> Humans that ingest these infected reef dwelling fish become ill.<ref name="Marine Ecosystems" /> Further, red tides are so powerful that they also cause [[respiratory illness]] simply by breathing the air near them. <ref name="Sea Change" />
Toxic algae blooms (red tides) are the result of a changing and warming climate.<ref name=Blooms>{{cite journal|last=Glick|first=Patricia|title=The Toll From Coal: Power Plants, Emissions, Wildlife, and Human Health|journal=Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society|year=2001|date=December 2001|volume=21|issue=6|pages=482–500|doi=10.1177/027046760102100606 }}</ref> El Nino events precipitation resulting in flooding, which causes the coastal seawater to be infiltrated with runoff from the flooding land resulting in increased nitrogen and phosphorus which feed the algae and spur their growth. <ref name="Sea Change">{{cite book|title=Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles, California|pages=122–137|author=Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D.|chapter=Sea Change}}</ref> These toxic blooms in turn infect [[shellfish]], which threatens the health of the millions of people who depend on shellfish for protein. <ref name="Sea Change" /> Paralytic shellfish poisoning is the most common result of red tides, as was seen in the 1987 outbreak in Prince Edward Island. <ref name="Sea Change" /> [[Ciguatera]] fish poisoning is also a result of red tides.<ref name="Marine Ecosystems">{{cite journal|last=Epstein P.R., Ford T.E., & Colwell R.R.|title=Marine Ecosystems|journal=The Lancet|date=13|year=1993|month=November|volume=342|issue=8881|pages=1216–1219 |doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)92191-U |pmid=7901535 }}</ref> Humans that ingest these infected reef dwelling fish become ill.<ref name="Marine Ecosystems" /> Further, red tides are so powerful that they also cause [[respiratory illness]] simply by breathing the air near them. <ref name="Sea Change" />


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 03:00, 2 August 2023

Climate Change and Infectious Disease

The earth's climate is changing causing the oceans and the climate to warm resulting in extreme weather patterns which have brought about an increase of infectious diseases--both new and re-emerging. [1] [2] These extreme weather patterns are creating extended rainy seasons in some areas [3] , and extended periods of drought in others, [4] as well and introducing new climates to different regions [4]. These extended seasons are creating climates that are able to sustain vectors for longer periods of time, allowing them to multiply rapidly, and also creating climates that are allowing the introduction and survival of new vectors. [1] .

Extreme Weather = New Diseases

“The rise of extreme weather is itself a symptom of an unstable climate. Moreover, the variance around the long-term warming trend has begun to influence biological systems, Indeed, two main effects of climate change—warming and greater weather variability-mean that millions of people worldwide face a higher risk of infectious disease”. [3] El Nino is an extreme weather pattern that is often responsible for increased precipitation, resulting in increased flooding, creating a more promising breeding ground for a plethora of vectors that both carry and cause infectious diseases [5].

Another result of the warming oceans are stronger hurricanes, which will wreck more havoc on land, and in the oceans, [5] and create more opportunities for vectors to breed and infectious diseases to flourish. [1] [3] Extreme weather also means stronger winds. These winds can carry vectors tens of thousands of kilometers, resulting in an introduction of new infectious disease to regions that have never seen them before, making the humans in these regions even more susceptible. [1]

Warmer and Wetter Climates = More Diseases

Mosquito-borne diseases are probably the greatest threat to humans as they carry malaria, elephantiasis, Rift Valley Fever, Yellow Fever, and Dengue Fever.[6] [7] [8] Studies are showing higher prevalence of these diseases in areas that have experienced extreme flooding and drought. [6] [7] Flooding creates more standing water for mosquitoes to breed; as well, shown that these vectors are able to feed more and grow faster in warmer climates [1] . As the climate warms over the oceans and coastal regions, warmer temperatures are also creeping up to higher elevations allowing mosquitoes to survive in areas they had never been able to before. [1] As the climate continues to warm there is a risk that malaria will make a return to the developed world. [1]

Ticks are also thriving in the warmer temperatures allowing them to feed and grow at a faster rate.[9] The black legged tick, a carrier of Lyme disease, when not feeding, spends its time burrowed in soil absorbing moisture. [3] [10] Ticks die when the climate either becomes too cold or when the climate becomes too dry, causing the ticks to dry out. [3] [10] The natural environmental controls that used to keep the tick populations in check are disappearing, and warmer and wetter climates are allowing the ticks to breed and grow at an alarming rate, resulting in an increase in Lyme disease, both in existing areas and in areas where it has not been seen before. [3] [9]

Other diseases on the rise due to extreme weather include: hantavirus,[11] schistosomiasis,[7] [8] onchocerciasis (river blindness),[8] and tuberculosis. [2]


Warmer Oceans = New Diseases

The warming oceans are becoming a breeding ground for toxic algae blooms (also known as red tides) and cholera. [1] [8] [12] As the nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the oceans increase, the cholera bacteria that lives within zooplankton emerge from their dormant state.[12] The changing winds and changing ocean currents push the zooplankton toward the coastline, carrying the cholera bacteria, which then contaminate drinking water, causing cholera outbreaks. [12] As flooding increases there is also in increase in cholera epidemics as the flood waters that are carrying the bacteria are infiltrating the drinking water supply.[13] El Nino has also been linked with cholera outbreaks because this weather patter warms the shoreline waters, causing the cholera bacteria to multiply rapidly. [12] [13]

Toxic algae blooms (red tides) are the result of a changing and warming climate.[14] El Nino events precipitation resulting in flooding, which causes the coastal seawater to be infiltrated with runoff from the flooding land resulting in increased nitrogen and phosphorus which feed the algae and spur their growth. [15] These toxic blooms in turn infect shellfish, which threatens the health of the millions of people who depend on shellfish for protein. [15] Paralytic shellfish poisoning is the most common result of red tides, as was seen in the 1987 outbreak in Prince Edward Island. [15] Ciguatera fish poisoning is also a result of red tides.[16] Humans that ingest these infected reef dwelling fish become ill.[16] Further, red tides are so powerful that they also cause respiratory illness simply by breathing the air near them. [15]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D. (2011). "The Mosquito's Bite". Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. pp. 29–61.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b Epstein, Paul R. (2001). "Climate change and emerging infectious diseases". Microbes and Infection. 3 (9): 747–754. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(01)01429-0. PMID 11489423.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D. (2011). "Sobering Predictions". Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. pp. 62–79.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b Meehl, G.A., T.F. Stocker, W.D. Collins, P. Friedlingstein, A.T. Gaye, J.M. Gregory, A. Kitoh, R. Knutti, J.M. Murphy, A. Noda, S.C.B. Raper, I.G. Watterson, A.J. Weaver and Z.-C. Zhao (2007). "Global Climate Projections". In Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller (ed.). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 747–845.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D. "Storms and Sickness". Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. pp. 161–178.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b Reiter, Paul (2001). "Climate Change and Mosquito-Borne Disease". Environmental Health Perspectives. 109 (1): 141–161.
  7. ^ a b c Hunter, P.R. (2003). "Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 94: 37S – 46S. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x. PMID 12675935.
  8. ^ a b c d McMichael, A.J., Woodruff, R.E., & Hales, S. (11). "Climate change and human health: present and future risks". The Lancet. 367 (9513): 859–869. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06) (inactive 2023-08-02). {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2023 (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ a b Süss, J., Klaus, C., Gerstengarbe, F.W., & Werner, P.C. (2008). "What Makes Ticks Tick? Climate Change, Ticks, and". Journal of Travel Medicine. 15 (1): 39–45. doi:10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x. PMID 18217868.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ a b Subak, Susan (2003). "Effects of Climate on Variability in Lyme Disease Incidence in the Northeastern". American Journal of Epidemiology. 157 (6): 531–538. doi:10.1093/aje/kwg014. PMID 12631543.
  11. ^ Klempa, B. (2009). "Hantaviruses and Climate Change". European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 15 (6): 518–523. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02848.x. PMID 19604276.
  12. ^ a b c d Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D. (2011). "Mozambique". Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. pp. 6–28.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ a b St. Louis, M.E., & Hess, J.J. (2008). "Climate Change Impacts on and Implications for Global Health". American Journal of Preventative Medicine. 35 (5): 527–538. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.08.023. PMID 18929979.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Glick, Patricia (December 2001). "The Toll From Coal: Power Plants, Emissions, Wildlife, and Human Health". Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society. 21 (6): 482–500. doi:10.1177/027046760102100606.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  15. ^ a b c d Epstein, P.R., & Ferber, D. "Sea Change". Changing Planet, Changing Health: How the Climate Crisis Threatens Our Health and What We Can Do about It. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. pp. 122–137.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ a b Epstein P.R., Ford T.E., & Colwell R.R. (13). "Marine Ecosystems". The Lancet. 342 (8881): 1216–1219. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)92191-U. PMID 7901535. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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