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'''Northrop University''', formerly '''Northrop Institute of Technology''' and '''Northrop Aeronautical Institute''', was a [[Private college|private]] technology college in [[Inglewood, California]], focused on aviation, engineering, science, mathematics, and computing. It operated from 1942 to 1993.<ref name=":8">Lurding, Carroll and Becque, Fran. (August 5, 2003) "[https://uofi.app.box.com/v/closed-institutions Closed Institutions]" ''[https://www.library.illinois.edu/slc/welcome/fraternity-sorority-almanac/ Almanac of Fraternities and Sororities].'' Urbana: University of Illinois. Accessed September 10, 2023.</ref>
'''Northrop University''', formerly '''Northrop Institute of Technology''' and '''Northrop Aeronautical Institute''', was a [[Private college|private]] technology college in [[Inglewood, California]], focused on aviation, engineering, science, mathematics, and computing. Forming in the 1940s, it is one of the earliest examples of a corporate university.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Allen |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xK2hxNDjmysC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA6&dq=%22Northrop+University%22+-wikipedia&hl=en |title=The Corporate University Handbook: Designing, Managing, and Growing a Successful Program |date=2002 |publisher=AMACOM |isbn=978-0-8144-0711-0 |page=6 |language=en |via=Google Books}}</ref> It operated from 1942 to 1993.<ref name=":8">Lurding, Carroll and Becque, Fran. (August 5, 2003) "[https://uofi.app.box.com/v/closed-institutions Closed Institutions]" ''[https://www.library.illinois.edu/slc/welcome/fraternity-sorority-almanac/ Almanac of Fraternities and Sororities].'' Urbana: University of Illinois. Accessed September 10, 2023.</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
[[Jack Northrop]], airline manufacturer and founder of [[Northrop Corporation]], started Northrop Aeronautical Institute in Inglewood, California in 1942.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=1959-03-24 |title=Northrop Offering Degrees in Science |pages=16 |work=Los Angeles Mirror |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/los-angeles-mirror-northrop-offering-deg/131540057/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://northropstudentrecords.org/history/ |access-date=September 10, 2023 |website=Northrup University Student Records}}</ref> He launched the Northrop Aeronautical Institute because he recognized the shortage of master mechanics, airline maintenance specialists, and aeronautical engineers for civilian aviation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=1946-01-02 |title=Northrop Aircraft Inc. Announces the Establishment of the Northrop Aeronautical Institute |pages=100 |work=The Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-northrop-aircraft/131540562/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Classes started through home study in January 1946 and expanded to offered on-site in June 1946.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1" />{{Efn|Several sources, including one from the university, state that it was established in 1942. However, it did not open to the public until 1946. In the gap, Northrop presumably used the school to train his eomployees at Northrop Corporation. It may have also served as a training facility for the military during World War II, although this theory is not supported by marketing literature.}}
[[Jack Northrop]], airline manufacturer and founder of [[Northrop Corporation]], started Northrop Aeronautical Institute in Inglewood, California in 1942.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=1959-03-24 |title=Northrop Offering Degrees in Science |pages=16 |work=Los Angeles Mirror |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/los-angeles-mirror-northrop-offering-deg/131540057/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://northropstudentrecords.org/history/ |access-date=September 10, 2023 |website=Northrup University Student Records}}</ref> He launched the Northrop Aeronautical Institute because he recognized the shortage of master mechanics, airline maintenance specialists, and aeronautical engineers for civilian aviation.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=1946-01-02 |title=Northrop Aircraft Inc. Announces the Establishment of the Northrop Aeronautical Institute |pages=100 |work=The Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-northrop-aircraft/131540562/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Classes started through home study in January 1946 and expanded to offered on-site in June 1946.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1" />{{Efn|Several sources, including one from the university, state that it was established in 1942. However, it did not open to the public until 1946. In the gap, Northrop presumably used the school to train his employees at Northrop Corporation. It may have also served as a training facility for the military during World War II, although this theory is not supported by marketing literature.}}


The school targeted male students, mostly veterans of the war, as well as employees of Northrop Corporation.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=1946-01-14 |title=Public Housing Agency Named at Hawthorne |pages=14 |work=The Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-public-housing-age/131540972/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The first class consisted of 412 students.<ref name=":1" /> Its first director was James L. McKinley.<ref name=":4" /> [[Charles Edward Chapel]] became its reseach and development director in 1946.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=1946-03-10 |title=Iowan an Expert in Many Fields |pages=29 |work=The Gazette |location=Cedar Rapids, Iowa |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-gazette-iowan-an-expert-in-many-fiel/131541471/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Additional faculty included employees of Nortrup Corporation and alumni of the school.<ref name=":1" />
The school targeted male students, mostly veterans of the war, as well as employees of Northrop Corporation.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=1946-01-14 |title=Public Housing Agency Named at Hawthorne |pages=14 |work=The Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-public-housing-age/131540972/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The first class consisted of 412 students.<ref name=":1" /> Its first director was James L. McKinley.<ref name=":4" /> [[Charles Edward Chapel]] became its reseach and development director in 1946.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=1946-03-10 |title=Iowan an Expert in Many Fields |pages=29 |work=The Gazette |location=Cedar Rapids, Iowa |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-gazette-iowan-an-expert-in-many-fiel/131541471/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> Additional faculty included employees of Nortrup Corporation and alumni of the school.<ref name=":1" />


In 1953, the school became independent of Northrop Corporation.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news |date=1991-05-10 |title=Northrop University to Drop Degree Programs, Cut Faculty |pages=548 |work=The Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-northrop-universit/131562645/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> In March 1959, the school announced its new name, Northrup Institute of Technology, reflecting the start of its Bachelor of Science curriculum.<ref name=":0" />{{Efn|The Northrup University Student Records website says this change happened in 1953 but this does not match newspaper reports.}} It became Northrup University at Inglewood in 1974 and offered master's degrees.<ref name=":1" /> The university's mission statement was "to expand human knowledge and benefit society through research integrated with education. We investigate the most challenging, fundamental problems in science and technology in a singularly collegial, interdisciplinary atmosphere while educating outstanding students to become creative members of society."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mission Statement |url=https://northropstudentrecords.org/missionstatement/ |access-date=September 10, 2023 |website=Northrup University Student Records}}</ref>
In 1953, the school became independent of Northrop Corporation, becoming a for-profit college.<ref name=":7">{{Cite news |date=1991-05-10 |title=Northrop University to Drop Degree Programs, Cut Faculty |pages=548 |work=The Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-los-angeles-times-northrop-universit/131562645/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> In March 1959, the school announced its new name, Northrup Institute of Technology, reflecting the start of its Bachelor of Science curriculum.<ref name=":0" />{{Efn|The Northrup University Student Records website says this change happened in 1953 but this does not match newspaper reports.}} It became Northrup University at Inglewood in 1974 and offered master's degrees.<ref name=":1" /> The university's mission statement was "to expand human knowledge and benefit society through research integrated with education. We investigate the most challenging, fundamental problems in science and technology in a singularly collegial, interdisciplinary atmosphere while educating outstanding students to become creative members of society."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mission Statement |url=https://northropstudentrecords.org/missionstatement/ |access-date=September 10, 2023 |website=Northrup University Student Records}}</ref>
[[File:August_1975_Convocation_Northrop_University,_California,_USA.jpg|thumb|August 1975 Convocation Northrop University]]
[[File:August_1975_Convocation_Northrop_University,_California,_USA.jpg|thumb|August 1975 Convocation Northrop University]]
Jack Northrop made a significant donation in 1975 to create the American Hall of Aviation at the school.<ref name=":1" /> The museum included the David D. Hatfield Collection of Aviation History which was the largest collection of aviation history ever to be displayed at a single location.<ref name=":1" />
Jack Northrop made a significant donation in 1975 to create the American Hall of Aviation at the school.<ref name=":1" /> The museum included the David D. Hatfield Collection of Aviation History which was the largest collection of aviation history ever to be displayed at a single location.<ref name=":1" />
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When it opened, Northrop Aeronautical Institute specialized in aeronautical engineering and training for airline maintenance mechanics.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=1945-12-20 |title=New Air School |pages=6 |work=The Bull Horn |location=Norman, Oklahoma |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-bull-horn-new-air-school/131540472/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> It offered training in aeronautical engineering, master airplane and engineer mechanic (A&E), engine mechanic, airline maintenance specialist, and airplane and engine maintenance.<ref name=":2" /> A 1946 ad, claimed, "The Northrop Aeronautical Institute brings to aviation training completely new standards."<ref name=":2" />
When it opened, Northrop Aeronautical Institute specialized in aeronautical engineering and training for airline maintenance mechanics.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=1945-12-20 |title=New Air School |pages=6 |work=The Bull Horn |location=Norman, Oklahoma |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-bull-horn-new-air-school/131540472/ |access-date=2023-09-10 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref> It offered training in aeronautical engineering, master airplane and engineer mechanic (A&E), engine mechanic, airline maintenance specialist, and airplane and engine maintenance.<ref name=":2" /> A 1946 ad, claimed, "The Northrop Aeronautical Institute brings to aviation training completely new standards."<ref name=":2" />


In March 1959, the school expanded beyond its certificate and two-year associate's degree program to include a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering, reflecting the industry's need for space engineers.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" /> In 1974, it offered Bachelor's and Masters degrees in accounting, aeronautical sciences, business administration and management, computer science, electrical engineering, design engineering project management, and mechanical engineering.<ref name=":1" /> It also added a law to its academic offerings in 2001.<ref name=":7" /><ref>"[https://admissions.calbar.ca.gov/s/login/?startURL=%2FLinkClick.aspx%3Ffileticket%3D6RVkwHtxTM0%253D%26tabid%3D2269 California State Bar, General Statistics Report, July 2001 California Bar Examination]". Archived from the original on 2012-04-05. Retrieved 2012-06-19.</ref>
In March 1959, the school expanded beyond its certificate and two-year associate's degree program to include a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering, reflecting the industry's need for space engineers.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":7" /> In 1974, it offered Bachelor's and Masters degrees in accounting, aeronautical sciences, business administration and management, computer science, electrical engineering, design engineering project management, and mechanical engineering.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":11" /> It also added a law to its academic offerings in 2001.<ref name=":7" /><ref>"[https://admissions.calbar.ca.gov/s/login/?startURL=%2FLinkClick.aspx%3Ffileticket%3D6RVkwHtxTM0%253D%26tabid%3D2269 California State Bar, General Statistics Report, July 2001 California Bar Examination]". Archived from the original on 2012-04-05. Retrieved 2012-06-19.</ref><ref name=":11" /> The Law School published the North


Starting in 1978, it offered bachelor's and master's degrees in [[Aeronautics|aeronautical sciences]], [[computer science]], [[Electrical engineering|electrical]], [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical]], and [[systems engineering]] programs at its satellite campus at Central Coach Tech.
Starting in 1978, it offered bachelor's and master's degrees in [[Aeronautics|aeronautical sciences]], [[computer science]], [[Electrical engineering|electrical]], [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical]], and [[systems engineering]] programs at its satellite campus at Central Coach Tech.
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== Popular culture ==
== Popular culture ==


* . Northrop University loaned the production a working GE turbojet engine for the jet car sequences in the film ''[[The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension]]'' (1984).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Murphy |first=Sean |date=June 10, 2016 |title=What do we know about the Jet Car? |url=https://www.figmentfly.com/bb/institute4.html |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.figmentfly.com}}</ref>86
* . Northrop University loaned its working GE turbojet engine for the jet car sequences in the film ''[[The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension]]'' (1984).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Murphy |first=Sean |date=June 10, 2016 |title=What do we know about the Jet Car? |url=https://www.figmentfly.com/bb/institute4.html |access-date=2023-09-10 |website=www.figmentfly.com}}</ref>
* The first accounts of organized [[Sepak takraw]] or kick volleyball in the United States were at Northrop University where Malaysian students had formed a team in 1986.<ref name=":10" />
* The first accounts of organized [[Sepak takraw]] or kick volleyball in the United States were at Northrop University where Malaysian students formed a team in 1986.<ref name=":10" />


== Notable alumni ==
== Notable alumni ==

Revision as of 22:53, 10 September 2023

Northrop University
Former name
Northrop Aeronautical Institute (1942 to March 1959)
Northrop Institute of Technology (March 1959 to 1974)
TypePrivate
Active1942–1993
FounderJack Northrop
Parent institution
Northrop Corporation
AccreditationWestern Association of Schools and Colleges
Officer in charge
James L. McKinley, director (1946)
PresidentB.J. Shell (1972-1989)
John Beljan (1989-1991)
Location
Inglewood
,
California
,
United States

Northrop University, formerly Northrop Institute of Technology and Northrop Aeronautical Institute, was a private technology college in Inglewood, California, focused on aviation, engineering, science, mathematics, and computing. Forming in the 1940s, it is one of the earliest examples of a corporate university.[1] It operated from 1942 to 1993.[2]

History

Jack Northrop, airline manufacturer and founder of Northrop Corporation, started Northrop Aeronautical Institute in Inglewood, California in 1942.[3][4] He launched the Northrop Aeronautical Institute because he recognized the shortage of master mechanics, airline maintenance specialists, and aeronautical engineers for civilian aviation.[5] Classes started through home study in January 1946 and expanded to offered on-site in June 1946.[6][4][a]

The school targeted male students, mostly veterans of the war, as well as employees of Northrop Corporation.[7][4] The first class consisted of 412 students.[4] Its first director was James L. McKinley.[8] Charles Edward Chapel became its reseach and development director in 1946.[9] Additional faculty included employees of Nortrup Corporation and alumni of the school.[4]

In 1953, the school became independent of Northrop Corporation, becoming a for-profit college.[10][1] In March 1959, the school announced its new name, Northrup Institute of Technology, reflecting the start of its Bachelor of Science curriculum.[3][b] It became Northrup University at Inglewood in 1974 and offered master's degrees.[4] The university's mission statement was "to expand human knowledge and benefit society through research integrated with education. We investigate the most challenging, fundamental problems in science and technology in a singularly collegial, interdisciplinary atmosphere while educating outstanding students to become creative members of society."[11]

August 1975 Convocation Northrop University

Jack Northrop made a significant donation in 1975 to create the American Hall of Aviation at the school.[4] The museum included the David D. Hatfield Collection of Aviation History which was the largest collection of aviation history ever to be displayed at a single location.[4]

In 1989, the Western Association of Schools and Colleges accused the university of improprieties in bookkeeping, credits, and the recruitment of foreign students.[10] This threatened the school's accreditation with that agency.[10] B.J. Shell who had been the university's president for seventeen years, stepped down.[10] John Beljan, previously the provost of California State University, became interim president.[10][12] Despite Beljan save of the school's accreditation, student enrollment from dropped from 1,800 to 1,200 by 1991.[10]

In May 1991, the university announced that it was reducing its degree programs and related staff due to low enrollment and related financial problems.[10] Students in its degree-based programs were assisted in transferring to other institutions after the June 1991 semester.[10] After declaring bankruptcy, Northrop University closed in August 1993.[2]

Campus

The school was originally located in the Northrop Corporation plant at 1637 East Broadway at Northrup Field.in Hawthorne, Los Angeles County, California.[5] It consisted of three purpose-built structures: a main building that included administration, classrooms, and engineering drafting rooms; a building for laboratories; and a building with modern shops/[8] In January 1946, Northrup purchased a former Army barracks installed on property owned by the City of Los Angeles and relocated it to property adjacent to Northrop Corporation to use as dormitories for 150 to 170 students.[7]

The school expanded to an additional site in Inglewood, California near the Los Angeles airport, around 1953.[10] The Central Coast Institute of Technology was founded in Sanda Barbara in 1978 and was accredited as a satellite campus of Northrop University in 1979/

Academics

When it opened, Northrop Aeronautical Institute specialized in aeronautical engineering and training for airline maintenance mechanics.[6] It offered training in aeronautical engineering, master airplane and engineer mechanic (A&E), engine mechanic, airline maintenance specialist, and airplane and engine maintenance.[5] A 1946 ad, claimed, "The Northrop Aeronautical Institute brings to aviation training completely new standards."[5]

In March 1959, the school expanded beyond its certificate and two-year associate's degree program to include a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering, reflecting the industry's need for space engineers.[3][10] In 1974, it offered Bachelor's and Masters degrees in accounting, aeronautical sciences, business administration and management, computer science, electrical engineering, design engineering project management, and mechanical engineering.[4][1] It also added a law to its academic offerings in 2001.[10][13][1] The Law School published the North

Starting in 1978, it offered bachelor's and master's degrees in aeronautical sciences, computer science, electrical, mechanical, and systems engineering programs at its satellite campus at Central Coach Tech.

In 1991, the university significantly cut its academic program and focused on avionics, helicopter maintenance, and technical training.[10]

The school was accredited by the American Engineers' Council for Professional Development. It was accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges in 1960.[4]

Student life

Student organizations

Northrop University was home to three social fraternities.[2] Alpha Epsilon Rho was a local fraternity established in 1963.[2] In 1968, it became a chapter of the national fraternity Tau Kappa Epsilon that was active at the university through 1993.[14][2] in addition, the national fraternity Sigma Phi Epsilon was active from 1972 to 1976.[2]

The university also had a chapter of Alpha Eta Rho, a professional college aviation fraternity that was chartered in March 1960.[15][16]

Sports

Students at Northrup University formed a Sepak takraw or kick volleyball in 1986. Malaysia Airlines sponsored the team to represent the United States team at the national tournament in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in November 1987; the Northrop team came in first place.[17]

Notable alumni

Notable faculty

Notes

  1. ^ Several sources, including one from the university, state that it was established in 1942. However, it did not open to the public until 1946. In the gap, Northrop presumably used the school to train his employees at Northrop Corporation. It may have also served as a training facility for the military during World War II, although this theory is not supported by marketing literature.
  2. ^ The Northrup University Student Records website says this change happened in 1953 but this does not match newspaper reports.

References

  1. ^ a b c d Allen, Mark (2002). The Corporate University Handbook: Designing, Managing, and Growing a Successful Program. AMACOM. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8144-0711-0 – via Google Books.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Lurding, Carroll and Becque, Fran. (August 5, 2003) "Closed Institutions" Almanac of Fraternities and Sororities. Urbana: University of Illinois. Accessed September 10, 2023.
  3. ^ a b c "Northrop Offering Degrees in Science". Los Angeles Mirror. 1959-03-24. p. 16. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "History". Northrup University Student Records. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  5. ^ a b c d "Northrop Aircraft Inc. Announces the Establishment of the Northrop Aeronautical Institute". The Los Angeles Times. 1946-01-02. p. 100. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  6. ^ a b "New Air School". The Bull Horn. Norman, Oklahoma. 1945-12-20. p. 6. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  7. ^ a b "Public Housing Agency Named at Hawthorne". The Los Angeles Times. 1946-01-14. p. 14. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  8. ^ a b "New Aviation School". The Pomona Progress Bulletin. Pomona, California. 1946-02-20. p. 18. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  9. ^ a b "Iowan an Expert in Many Fields". The Gazette. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 1946-03-10. p. 29. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Northrop University to Drop Degree Programs, Cut Faculty". The Los Angeles Times. 1991-05-10. p. 548. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Newspapers.com.
  11. ^ "Mission Statement". Northrup University Student Records. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  12. ^ Gordon, Larry Gordon (1989-09-23). "Northrop U. Hires Provost From Cal State Long Beach". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  13. ^ "California State Bar, General Statistics Report, July 2001 California Bar Examination". Archived from the original on 2012-04-05. Retrieved 2012-06-19.
  14. ^ "Find a Chapter | Tau Kappa Epsilon Fraternity". www.tke.org. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  15. ^ Robson, John, ed. (1963). Baird's Manuel of American College Fraternities (17th ed.). Menasha, Wisconsin: The Collegiate Press, George Banta Company, Inc. pp. 498–499.
  16. ^ "Chapters - Alpha Eta Rho". web.archive.org. 2014-02-26. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  17. ^ a b Northrop University Magazine, December 1987, vol 3, no. 4.
  18. ^ Murphy, Sean (June 10, 2016). "What do we know about the Jet Car?". www.figmentfly.com. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  19. ^ "David W. Armenta, Councilmember" (PDF). City of Pico Rivera. March 2006. Retrieved 2023-09-10 – via Web Archive.
  20. ^ a b c Hadland, Tony; Lessing, Hans-Erhard (2014-03-28). Bicycle Design: An Illustrated History. MIT Press. p. 489. ISBN 978-0-262-32222-5 – via Google Books.
  21. ^ "Robbyanto Budiman, Wahana Ottomitra Multiartha PT: Profile and Biography". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  22. ^ "Robert Citron, Private Space Pioneer, Dies at 79 –". www.spacesafetymagazine.com. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  23. ^ "Taiwan Review - The New Cabinet". web.archive.org. 2013-12-17. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  24. ^ "Obituary for Francis Marion McDaniel at Kinkade Funeral Chapel". www.kinkadefunerals.com. February 2018. Retrieved 2023-09-10.
  25. ^ "Syed Naveed Qamar, Federal Minister for Defence". Ministry of Defense, Government of Pakistan. Archived from the original on December 1, 2012. Retrieved September 10, 2023 – via Archive.today.
  26. ^ "Suphajee Suthumpun Net Worth (2023) – wallmine.com". wallmine.com. Retrieved 2023-09-10.

https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-05-10-me-1391-story.html

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