Christian observances of Jewish holidays

Over 15,000 members of the Worldwide Church of God attended a Christian Feast of Tabernacles observance in Big Sandy, Texas in 1978.

Christian observances of Jewish holidays (Yamim Tovim) is a practice evidenced since the time of Christ. Specific practices vary among denominations: these holidays may be honored in their original form in recognition of Christianity's Jewish roots or altered to suit Christian theology. Symbolic and thematic features of Jewish services are commonly interpreted in a Christian light: for example, the Paschal Lamb of the Passover Seder is viewed as a symbol of Christ's sacrifice.

As a group these Christians form non-denominational alliances such as Christians for Israel and Christians United for Israel; they also form the root of a global, cross-denominational movement called Messianic Judaism, and of its offshoot known as Hebrew Roots.

A small number of Christian denominations — including the Assemblies of Yahweh, Messianic Jews, some congregations of the Church of God (Seventh Day), the World Mission Society Church of God, Hebrew Roots, Pentecostals and a variety of Church of God groups instruct their members to observe the religious holidays described in the Tanakh, but interpreted, they believe, in the light of the New Testament. Some Seventh-day Adventists have also adopted the Jewish holidays against the wishes of the denominational leaders. Most of these denominations also eschew the observance of Christmas and Easter, believing them to be later, pagan corruptions.

Most point to the tradition that Jesus' parents kept God's holy days, that Jesus himself kept God's holy days during his ministry, and that the Apostles observed the same feasts after they were called "Christians". The Book of Acts chapter 2 records that the start of the Christian Church began on a biblical feast day: "And when the day of Pentecost has fully come, they were all with one accord in one place."

Many of these Christians believe that the intended purpose of all of the biblical holy days is to foreshadow or point to the identity of the Messiah, citing that Paul the Apostle confirms this view by linking Jesus' sacrifice to the fulfilment of the Jewish feast of Passover. Jesus was not only declared the "Lamb of God" by John the Baptist, a reference to the Passover lamb but was also presented as the Lamb in Jerusalem on 10 Nisan, then four days later crucified on precisely the day Jews brought the Passover sacrifice, 14 Nisan.

The Eucharist was instituted on the night of the Passover Seder which Jesus and the apostles were celebrating. The transfiguration occurred while Jesus, Peter, James and John were celebrating the Feast of Sukkot (Tabernacles or Booths). Prominent Protestant leaders such as Chuck Missler, Sid Roth, and John Hagee advocate the return to the 1st-century walk of faith and Christianity's connection to its Hebrew roots.

Christian Passover

Main articles: Christian observance of Passover and Computus

It is not common for mainstream Christians to celebrate Passover. Some regard Passover as superseded by Easter and the Passover lamb as supplanted by the Eucharist. But there are Christian groups, the Assemblies of Yahweh, Messianic Jews, Hebrew Roots, and some congregations of the Church of God (Seventh Day), that celebrate some parts of the Jewish holiday of Passover. As well, there are mainstream Christians from historic liturgical traditions (i.e., Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, etc.), who celebrate the Passover meal in order to provide historical and cultural background for Maundy Thursday, part of the Paschal Triduum, during Holy Week.

The main Christian view seems to present the Passover meal, which was held on the night before Jesus died, also named Last Supper, as the Evening of New Covenant, and Christians generally agree that was on Thursday being observed at Church. The Christian view also seems to present the Day of First Fruit, which was held according to Jewish law on the day after Saturday during the Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Resurrection Sunday (also known as Easter). Christian Passover is a religious observance celebrated by a small number of 1st-century believers instead of, or alongside, the more common Christian holy day and festival of Easter. The redemption from the bondage of sin through the sacrifice of Christ is celebrated, a parallel of the Jewish Passover's celebration of redemption from bondage in the land of Egypt.

Christian Feast of Weeks (Pentecost)

Main article: Pentecost

The traditional Christian holiday of Pentecost is based on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot celebrated seven weeks after the start of Passover. Pentecost is part of the Movable Cycle of the ecclesiastical year. Pentecost is always seven weeks after the day after the Sabbath day which always occurs during the feast of unleavened bread. Rabbinic Jews avoid celebration of Shavuot on the day after the Sabbath (the first day of the week). However, Karaite Jews celebrate this holy day according to Scriptural mandate on the day after the Sabbath. This Sunday celebration, in Christian tradition, is calculated as 50 days after Easter (inclusive of Easter Day). In other words, it falls on the eighth Sunday, counting Easter Day.

Pentecost celebrates the birth of the Church, when thousands of Jews were in Jerusalem to celebrate Shavuot, and heard Peter and the disciples speaking in their own language. However, Shavuot is one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals laid out for the Torah observant Jews, which was the reason for the huge gathering of Jewish believers in Jerusalem on that same day.

Christian Feast of Trumpets

Rosh Hashanah is celebrated by a number of Christian denominations and unincorporated house church groups within the United States, including: Assemblies of Yahweh, Messianic Jews, some congregations of the Church of God (Seventh Day), some evangelical Protestant churches (mainly Baptist), as well as Seventh Day Pentecostals in Eastern Europe. This day of resounding is also known in Judaism by the name "Yom Teruah" and in Christianity as the Feast of Trumpets.

Christian believers connect hearing "the sound of the trumpet" or shofar, according to the First Epistle to the Thessalonians and the Book of Revelation, with the events that occur at the Resurrection of the dead ("For the Lord Himself will descend from heaven with a loud cry of summons, with the shout of an archangel, and with the blast of the trumpet of God. And those who have departed this life in Christ will rise first."1Thess 4:16, Revelation 1:10).

Some say this "pivotal event of all human history to which the Feast of Trumpets points is the Return of Christ". Some evangelical television channels call Rosh Hashanna eve the "Feast of Trumpets", for example at CBN TV that marks the Jewish New Year with a staff gathering for Rosh Hashanah.

Latter Day Saint movement

Joseph Smith is said to have received the golden plates (which became The Book of Mormon) on the Rosh Hashanah on 22 September 1827. Biblical references and interpretation by Jewish sages through the centuries set this day as the day God would remember his covenants with Israel to bring them back from exile. On this day ritual trumpet blasts signify the issuance of revelation and a call for Israel to gather for God's word of redemption. Set at the time of Israel's final agricultural harvest, the day also symbolizes the Lord's final harvest of souls. Furthermore, it initiates the completion of the Lord's time periods, the Days of Awe, and signifies the last time to prepare for final judgment and the Messianic Age. The coming forth of the Book of Mormon is said to be fulfilling such prophecies of the day.

Christian Day of Atonement

Main article: Christian observances of Yom Kippur

It is not common for mainstream Christians to celebrate Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement). The New Testament refers to the Day of Atonement in Acts 27:9, but does not specify whether or not Christians were celebrating it.

Assuming an apostolic practice of observing Yom Kippur, a small number of evangelical Christians observe it today. Among congregations of the Churches of God, the Day of Atonement is observed as an annual Sabbath where members fast in observance of Leviticus 23:27-29. Most, like Roderick C. Meredith, former leader of the Living Church of God, also believe that the Day of Atonement "pictures the binding of Satan at the beginning of the Millennium and the world becoming at one with God." Children and those with medical conditions for whom fasting could be detrimental are not expected to participate.

Many groups affiliated with Messianic Judaism have provided instruction describing the evangelical significance for observance of this day.

One rationale for celebrating the Day of Atonement is that the Apostle Paul celebrated it and would not miss it during a storm on a ship. Acts 27:9 reads, "Since much time had been lost and sailing was now dangerous, because even the Fast had already gone by, Paul advised them".

Christian Feast of Tabernacles

Early church history

Jesus observed the Jewish Sukkot (the Feast of Tabernacles or Festival of Booths) during his ministry (see John 7:1–52). Referring to Paul the Apostle, Acts 18:20–21 states: "When they desired him to tarry longer time with them, he consented not; but bade them farewell, saying, I must keep this feast that cometh in Jerusalem: but I will return again to you, if God will. And he sailed from Ephesus". Scholars debate which feast this refers to, but Protestant scholar Thomas Lewin concluded that Paul was referring to the Feast of Tabernacles.

In the 2nd century, Jewish Christians certainly kept the Feast of Tabernacles, according to 20th century Catholic scholar Cardinal Jean Danielou, where its celebration was tied to millenarianism as it is with many Christians who observe it today. Its observance was centered in the Asiatic environment to which both Papias and Cerinthus belonged. Cardinal Danielou also saw references to the Feast of Tabernacles in the Shepherd of Hermas, which would indicate that around that time some in Rome also observed it, though he believes that later on they transferred it to become something else. According to Saint Jerome, Polycarp also kept the Feast of Tabernacles in the 2nd century in Asia Minor.

Saint Methodius of Olympus (died c. 311) taught that Christians should observe the Feast of Tabernacles, and he also tied it to the teaching of the millennial reign of Christ: "For since in six days God made the heaven and earth, and finished the whole world, and rested on the seventh day from all His works which He had made, and blessed the seventh day and sanctified it, so by a figure in the seventh month, when the fruits of the earth have been gathered in, we are commanded to keep the feast to the Lord, which signified that, when this world shall be terminated at the seventh thousand years, when God shall have completed the world, He shall rejoice in us."

Didymus The Blind (c. 313-398) also enjoined the observance of the Feast of Tabernacles, and cited 2 Peter 1:14 and 2 Cor. 5:4, where he identified the temporary dwelling with the human body, saying that only those who preserve the purity of their bodies and spirits will celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles, and that Sukkot will be celebrated in the next world at the resurrection, when the saved will rise into an incorruptible body, rising up in power and glory to become a sacred dwelling.

After the rise of Emperor Constantine, Christian observance of the Feast of Tabernacles became increasingly viewed as heretical by the developing Catholic church. In the 4th century, Epiphanius discusses Nazarene Christians who kept the Jewish Holy Days in various locations in his time, a practice which he considered heretical. John Chrysostom (of Constantinople) commented that people who professed Christ in his area were also observing the Feast of Tabernacles, which he also considered heretical, as did St. Jerome in the 4th and 5th Centuries, who notes that these Christians also gave the feast a millenarian significance.

Post-reformation

Nevertheless, a small number of Christian groups continued to observe the Feast of Tabernacles outside of the sphere of the Catholic Church. In 1588, the Szekler Sabbatarians of Transylvania united under the unitarian nobleman András Eőssi, observed Christian versions of all of the biblical Jewish Holy Days including the Feast of Tabernacles. They also rejected the observance of Christmas, Easter, and New Year's Day. Within a decade, they grew to be represented in many towns and villages, mainly centered in the towns of Szekely-Keresztur (today the Romanian town of Cristuru-Secuiesc) and Koropatak (today Bodoc), and a number of Hungarian villages. They developed a hymn book with songs specifically for Christian observance of the Jewish Holy Days They considered themselves as converted gentiles who had inherited from the Jews the eternally binding law, which God had given. By 1637, there were believed to number between 15,000 and 20,000, until they attracted the attention of the Hungarian parliament. In 1600 a decree was passed which allowed their estates and properties to be confiscated, and in 1618, a decree was passed in Cluj with the approval of Prince Bethlen to solve the "Jewish Christian Problem" by giving them one year to rejoin one of the reorganized churches. Soon afterward, their books were confiscated and burnt. By the end of the mid 17th century, they still were represented in at least eleven towns and villages in Transylvania, but by 1865 only about 170-180 members remained in the town of Bozod-Ujfalu (near Gyula Feheruar). The group was later absorbed into Judaism during the 1930s.

In 1900, the Feast of Tabernacles was formally celebrated by the Southern Baptists at Falls Creek Encampment. There are pictures of the original Falls Creek Tabernacle with the blowing of the shofar to call to service. It was also celebrated heavily among those in the south, known as Bush Arbors, as late as the 1960s. From this movement came the history of tent revivals, which birthed the world-wide evangelist Billy Graham.

Today, the Feast of Booths, or Tabernacles or Sukkot, is celebrated by a growing number of groups, including Messianic Jews, Church of God groups, and Apollo Quiboloy's Kingdom of Jesus Christ church in the Philippines, as well as the International Christian Embassy Jerusalem (ICEJ). They cite God's and the prophets' injunctions in the Old Testament that the Israelites observe the holiday, and accounts in the New Testament of how Jesus and his apostles kept this commandment.

Modern practice

Today, actual observance practice varies. Churches may construct a communal sukkah, on church property or elsewhere, in which services are held and meals eaten, and in some congregations, dancing. In some congregations, individuals may construct their own booths which may be slept in, or where only meals may be eaten. Some members may send or exchange greeting cards prior to the event, participate in special meals, music, and worship services, and give alms. Among congregations of the Church of God tradition, church leadership selects a Feast site designed to serve a large geographic area which includes a rented hall for congregational meetings and various amenities. Members travel and stay in tents at local campgrounds or (more commonly) stay in a hotel where they may attend daily worship services and participate in recreation, fellowship, sight-seeing, and church activities for eight days. As with many Christians who have observed it in the past, it is tied to Christ's millennial reign on earth, believed to be a time of great spiritual and physical blessing for all mankind. Members are instructed to save a tenth of their income as part of a Second tithe to spend on themselves and their families in order to have the means to observe all the holidays, but particularly the Feast of Tabernacles.

Criticism

Jewish reactions

The practice of Christian observance of Jewish holidays has elicited significant and near universal criticism from the Jewish community. According to prevailing sentiments among Jewish individuals, national Jewish organizations, and local community centers, celebrating Jewish holidays by imitating Jewish religious practices is offensive and appropriative. Additionally,some Jewish critics have argued that Christian attempts to participate in or emulate Jewish religious practices are inherently antisemetic.

Jewish organizations have articulated several criticisms of such practices. Firstly, many Jewish leaders assert that Christian attempts to observe Jewish religious practices often rest on significant misrepresentations of contemporary Jewish customs and are rooted in historical inaccuracies. These inaccuracies are particularly conspicuous when it comes to the historical context of Jewish holiday observance during the Second Temple period, which is the era that Christians seeking to emulate Judaism often aim to recreate.

Another notable criticism from the Jewish community pertains to the historical oppression of Jews by the Catholic Church and other Christian denominations. Some argue that modern attempts by certain Christian individuals to engage in traditionally Jewish practices are deeply offensive, given that many modern Jewish practices evolved in response to historic persecution by Christians. Consequently, efforts to reinterpret these practices to center around Jesus as the messiah are considered a profound distortion of Jewish traditions.

• Judaism as a Closed Religion*

Judaism is often described as a closed religion, implying that its practices are generally reserved for those born into the faith or individuals who undergo a formal conversion process.

• • Jewish Criticism of Christian "Seders"**

Jewish criticisms of attempts by Christian’s to observe Jewish religious holidays have often centered around the holiday of Passover.

The central component of Passover observance is the Passover "Seder," a ceremonial dinner traditionally held on the first or first two nights of the Passover festival. In Hebrew, the term "seder" translates to "order," signifying the structured sequence of rituals and traditions that Jews are obligated to follow during each Seder.

In recent times, Evangelical Christian groups have introduced the concept of "Christian Seders" into their religious practices. They assert that the Last Supper, a key event in Christian tradition, was, in fact, a Passover Seder. Consequently, they contend that Passover should be recognized as a Christian tradition. However, one notable issue, among others, arises from this assertion: during the time of Jesus, Passover Seders were not an established practice. Rather, Passover celebrations occurred within the sacred confines of the Jewish Temple. The Seder as it is known today became the primary Passover ritual following the Roman destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, which transpired approximately four decades after the death of Jesus.

The phenomenon of Christian "Seders" emerged relatively recently, mainly post-World War II, and lacks historical precedence within the Christian tradition.

It is important to highlight that Christian participation in Seders is generally considered acceptable, provided they have been formally invited by Jewish hosts. Engaging in such practices without an invitation is viewed as a form of cultural appropriation. This appropriation is particularly contentious considering the historical context wherein Christians historically perpetrated violence against Jews during the Easter season, which often coincides with the Passover festival.

Amy Jill Levine, an Orthodox Jewish professor of New Testament and Jewish Studies at Vanderbilt Divinity School, has raised concerns about the appropriateness of holding Passover seders in churches. Levine stated, "Not only is the Christian seder historically compromised, but it also poses challenges to interreligious relations due to its complete reinterpretation of Jewish symbols in Christian terms." She further argued that Christian seders do not resolve issues of sensitivity between the religions but, on the contrary, can serve to absolve congregations by giving them a sense of authenticity in celebrating a Passover seder.

Rabbi David Greenspoon, a Conservative rabbi, contended that it is inappropriate for Christian communities to host Christian seders because they reflect the theological concept of supersessionism, where Christianity is seen as superseding Judaism. He added that "Christian supersessionism has had disastrous effects for Jews throughout history." Greenspoon proposed that the best way for Christians to connect with the Jewish roots of Jesus is to attend a Jewish seder, as this allows them to witness the vibrant and evolving nature of Judaism, rather than viewing it merely as a precursor to Christianity.

• • Christian Seders as Cultural Appropriation**

The phenomenon of Christian churches and Bible colleges hosting "Easter Seders" across the United States has drawn varied reactions from the Jewish community. While some individuals and institutions engage in these events with the intent to commemorate an escape from oppression, the Jewish perspective asserts that the Seder is inherently tied to a unique historical experience—the Jewish people's liberation from slavery in ancient Egypt.

Dina Cheney, a Jewish food writer, has emphasized that the Seder is deeply rooted in Jewish history and rituals, with its symbolic foods and prayers specifically tailored to the narrative of Jewish enslavement. Thus, it appears unusual for those outside the Jewish tradition to conduct a Seder, with Cheney suggesting that they might more appropriately devise ritualistic meals that resonate with their own cultural experiences.

From the Jewish standpoint, many view these adapted Seder celebrations as instances of cultural appropriation, a practice where the appropriators may not fully grasp the deep significance of the culture they are engaging with, as per Amandla Stenberg's definition. Robbie Medwed, a Jewish day school instructor, categorizes these adaptations as "100% cultural appropriation" since the Christian celebrations are often ahistorical.

Medwed underscores a critical point—that the Passover Seder did not exist during the time of Jesus, as it only first appears in The Mishnah between 180 and 200 CE and was later developed in the Talmud between 400 and 550 CE. The rituals associated with today's Seder were created long after Jesus' time. When Christian groups transform Jewish symbols or reinterpret elements of the Seder to fit their beliefs, it is viewed by the Jewish community as deeply offensive, as it fundamentally alters the original meaning.

Additionally, the reinterpretation of traditional Seder elements, such as matzo representing the body of Christ, can be seen as misappropriation, causing concern among Jews.

Kendall Vanderslice, a food historian specializing in church meals, highlights that Christian Seders often arise in Evangelical spaces seeking connections or traditions, especially when liturgical rituals associated with traditional Christianity may be absent. She notes that there is a common misconception among some Christians that the Seder they practice today is the same as the Passover meal that Jesus had during his Last Supper, even though this lacks historical accuracy.

Importantly, many Jews believe that some Christians may overlook the historical harm that Christianity has inflicted upon Jewish communities over centuries. The eagerness to engage in Seder celebrations without a full understanding of this history is a source of concern.

Many Jews believe that Christian Seders are usually carried out by individuals with limited understanding of Judaism, inadvertently commodifying and stripping Jewish rituals of their deep meaning.

In summary, Jewish reactions to Christian Seders reflect concerns about cultural appropriation, historical inaccuracies, and the potential for misinterpretation of Jewish traditions, all of which underscore the importance of understanding the cultural and historical context when engaging with such practices.

• • Shofar Usage and Jewish Criticisms of Christian Appropriation**

The shofar, a sacred horn, holds significant symbolic importance in Jewish religious observance, particularly during Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. These two High Holy Days, which usher in the fall season, are central to the Jewish calendar and serve as pivotal moments for spiritual reflection and renewal. Although the term "Rosh Hashanah" does not appear in the Torah, it is referred to as the "Day of Blasting" or Yom T'ruah, alluding to the prominent role of the shofar.

The shofar's distinctive sound is intrinsically linked to the commencement of the new year, signifying a call to prepare for the year ahead and an opportunity for personal introspection, encapsulated in the concept of "heshbon hanefesh" or "checking in of your soul." In traditional Jewish communities, the shofar's blast is heard daily for a month leading up to Rosh Hashanah, intensifying to 100 blows on the day itself. This practice continues throughout the week bridging Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, concluding with an extended, powerful blast to mark the end of a 40-day period of deep self-examination.

In recent times, various Christian groups have sought to appropriate the shofar, often in the context of militarized actions. Disturbingly, during the events of January 6, individuals identifying as Christians were photographed with shofars adorned with the American flag, and they were observed using the shofar as a symbolic war cry at the U.S. Capitol.

This appropriation has drawn vehement criticism from the Jewish community. They perceive it as deeply offensive and troubling, especially given that they often feel targeted by the very individuals and communities who seek to emulate the practice of blowing the shofar.

Right-wing Christian nationalist groups have employed the shofar in military-like demonstrations, identifying with the concept of the Jericho March. This utilization of the shofar in a military context stands in stark contrast to Jewish tradition, where such usage has not been observed for millennia and is widely discouraged.

In sum, the Jewish community expresses profound reservations and concerns regarding the appropriation of the shofar, emphasizing that this sacred symbol holds deep spiritual significance and should be respected in accordance with its traditional context.

• • Kabbalah and Jewish Criticisms of Christian Appropriation**

Kabbalah, a profound mystical tradition within Judaism, has its origins in 12th-century Spain. Primarily championed by Sephardic Jews, it swiftly disseminated across global Jewish communities. The practitioners of Kabbalah aspire to forge a deep, intimate connection with the Divine. Central to Kabbalistic belief is the notion that within every individual's soul lies a concealed aspect of God, awaiting revelation.

Historically within the Jewish community, kabbalah was a tradition reserved for individuals who were particularly well-versed in Judaism, and who possessed emotional and psychological maturity. Education on Kabbalah was not accessible or even encouraged among most members of the Jewish community. Consequently, within the Jewish community there exist stringent, time-honored restrictions to govern those who may engage with its study and practice.

• • Cabala**

Cabala, a Christianized adaptation of Kabbalah, emerged during the Renaissance period. Christian scholars turned their attention to Kabbalah in a quest to comprehend the historical underpinnings of their own religious practices. Regrettably, a primary motive behind the study of Jewish mysticism was to facilitate the conversion of Jews to Christianity. This agenda was not only deeply antisemitic but also underscored Christian supremacy, seeking to validate Christian doctrines while suppressing Jewish cultural and religious identities. Entire books of Jewish mysticism were translated and reinterpreted to align with Christian beliefs.

Fortunately, Cabala held little significance within the Jewish community and failed to achieve its conversion goals. For centuries, it was wielded as a tool of oppression against Jews, serving as a weapon to assert Christian dominance while undermining Jewish practices.

• • Why Jews Believe Kabbalah is a Closed Practice**

Kabbalah, often referred to as "Torat ha-Sod" or "the teaching of the secret," has historically been transmitted discreetly, from teacher to select student, within the Jewish community. Such secrecy and restrictions were implemented to ensure that those engaging with Kabbalah possessed the necessary intellectual and psychological readiness to undertake its profound study. In fact, potential students were discouraged from pursuing Kabbalah until reaching at least 40 years of age, owing to its inherent complexity and the prerequisite of being well-versed in the Torah.

Some rabbis have sought to demystify elements of Judaism, making them more accessible to outsiders, in an effort to protect the Jewish community from individuals who wield the religion as a tool against them. This concern is intrinsically tied to instances of Christian appropriation and misinterpretation of Jewish traditions and sacred teachings, often with the aim of proselytization.

While non-Jews may gain an intellectual understanding of Kabbalistic concepts and perhaps even be invited to study them, they are prohibited from independent study and direct participation in its teachings. This stems from a commitment to safeguarding the integrity of a tradition deeply rooted in Jewish history and spirituality. As such, non-Jews are encouraged to consider full conversion if they wish to engage with Kabbalah in a meaningful way.

Within Christianity

Some critics of Christian observances of Jewish holidays have echoed the comments of the 4th century theologian John Chrysostom who said,

The festivals of the pitiful and miserable Jews are soon to march upon us one after the other and in quick succession: the feast of Trumpets, the feast of Tabernacles, the fasts. There are many in our ranks who say they think as we do. Yet some of these are going to watch the festivals and others will join the Jews in keeping their feasts and observing their fasts. I wish to drive this perverse custom from the Church right now.

Some Christians, like the popular evangelist John Hagee believe that the observance of Jewish holidays by Christians is educationally valuable, but they do not believe that it is obligatory. Others fear that the observance of Jewish holidays by Christians inevitably leads them to slide into Judaism, but there is little evidence to justify their fear.

See also

• Biblical law in Christianity
• Cultural appropriation
• Judaizers